LITEROTICA PODCAST
LIT CAMS (200 Free Tokens)ADULT TOYSVOD MOVIES

What the Hell Is Going On Here????

Laurel said:
Suppose you walk into a bar or party full of people socializing - a big bar, with hundreds if not thousands of people all hanging out and talking. Out of all those people, there are two or three who say shitting things to you.

Do you immediately start flailing you arms and talking about how the whole party sucks and everyone there is a huge asshole? Do you follow those two or three people around fighting with them? Do you walk up to random strangers and talk nonstop about how those two or three people are big fat meanies?

OR do you walk around until you find someone else to talk to?

If you spend time reading threads, you'll probably find people you gel with. Put the people who are troubling you on Ignore if they are really ruining your experience. Or just ignore them.

It's possible that there's a part of you that enjoys engaging in flame wars, and that's why you're obsessing. That's fine. Lots of people enjoy flame wars. Just be honest with yourself, and stop painting yourself as a victim when you're an active participant in the flaming.

Of course, Johnny's post is way better. And shorter.
Click to expand...

You got me thinking Laurel. One can bitch and complain and feel they are victims of the system or whatever, or they can take a stand.

Thanks for opening my eyes and my heart.

Still a little pissed all of my stories were suddenly eradicated to be honest.

But in a way it's a relief. I mean readers expected regular updates to story series that I had never intended to be series. I felt a tremendous amount of pressure to write, and I don't feel that now. It's so nice to lay my head down on the pillow at night and relax, not to think about plots or characters. So I'm okay, actually, with you wiping those stories out. I still think there are some completed series that readers could enjoy, but that's neither here nor there.

If you'd consider restoring some completed series that would be nice. Not for me, but because the stories have merit and might be enjoyed by others.

But at the end of the day I'm okay how things have ended up. Still love and respect you and the job you have done with this site. Not sure what Manu does as I have never interacted with him.

I apologize for being a distraction.

Although if this is the most excitement this thread has had, I will try to keep things stirred up ;)
 
Sean said:
Is this retarded fuck still at it?
Click to expand...

I give you credit for spelling correctly (although I wonder how much assistance you had from spell check). Although I disagree with the said application of the term "retarded fuck" as it applies to me. It makes you sound like a bully, to be honest. And I will not be bullied.

If you would have kept out of this I likely would have left all well alone and been gone. Now you have given me a reason to return.

I hate bullies. I was bullied as a kid and will NOT TOLERATE IT as an adult.

Let's dance, fuck-head. You started this. You won't finish it.
 
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Luvtowriteerotica said:
I give you credit for spelling correctly (although I wonder how much assistance you from spell check). Although I disagree with the said application of the term "retarded fuck" as it applies to me. It makes you sound like a bully, to be honest. And I will not be bullied.

If you would have kept out of this I likely would have left all well alone and been gone. Now you have given me a reason to return.

I hate bullies. I was bullied as a kid and will NOT TOLERATE IT as an adult.

Let's dance, fuck-head. You started this. You won't finish it.
Click to expand...

Yes, you'll be forced to taunt him again.
 
So this one time I wrote an erotic story and it was published on a website and people read it and some of the comments were mean but also some of them were nice and then I went back to the website and the stories were gone and I went to ask why and people started to pick on me and then I got upset because I don't like it when people pick on me so I decided that I would fight back and when I fought back the people who were picking on me picked on me more so I fought back more and wrote stories about it which I posted on the website and they are still there but the ones that were deleted are still gone and I don't know what I have to do to make them come back so I'm pretty angry but at the same time some of my best work is the new stuff that I have written after being picked on so I'm going to have a book published.
 
Way to go, good luck.

As for me, everyone loved my stories, nearly every one of them earned the H rating. I posted stories for years. But then I got on the bad side of Mistress Lynn and all of the stories went away.

Here's the lesson I learned -- Dems are screwing this country over. I'll leave it to you to draw your own conclusion(s).
 
World Wide Web
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"WWW" and "The web" redirect here. For other uses of WWW, see WWW (disambiguation). For other uses of web, see Web (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with the Internet.
Internet
Visualization of Internet routing paths
A visualization of routing paths through a portion of the Internet.
General[show]
Governance[show]
Information infrastructure[show]
Services[show]
Guides[show]
Portal icon Internet portal

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World Wide Web Center
The web's logo designed by Robert Cailliau
Invented by Tim Berners-Lee[1][2]
Company CERN
Availability Worldwide

The World Wide Web (abbreviated as WWW or W3,[3] commonly known as the web) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia and navigate between them via hyperlinks.

Tim Berners-Lee, a British computer scientist and at that time employee of CERN, a European research organisation near Geneva,[4] wrote a proposal in March 1989 for what would eventually become the World Wide Web.[1] The 1989 proposal was meant for a more effective CERN communication system but Berners-Lee eventually realised the concept could be implemented throughout the world.[5] Berners-Lee and Flemish computer scientist Robert Cailliau proposed in 1990 to use hypertext "to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will",[6] and Berners-Lee finished the first website in December that year.[7] Berners-Lee posted the project on the alt.hypertext newsgroup on 7 August 1991.[8]

Contents

1 History
2 Function
2.1 Linking
2.2 Dynamic updates of web pages
2.3 WWW prefix
2.4 Scheme specifiers: http and https
3 Web servers
4 Privacy
5 Intellectual property
6 Security
7 Standards
8 Accessibility
9 Internationalization
10 Statistics
11 Speed issues
12 Caching
13 See also
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links

History
Main article: History of the World Wide Web
The NeXT Computer used by Berners-Lee. The handwritten label declares, "This machine is a server. DO NOT POWER IT DOWN!!"

In the May 1970 issue of Popular Science magazine, Arthur C. Clarke predicted that satellites would someday "bring the accumulated knowledge of the world to your fingertips" using a console that would combine the functionality of the photocopier, telephone, television and a small computer, allowing data transfer and video conferencing around the globe.[9]

In March 1989, Tim Berners-Lee wrote a proposal that referenced ENQUIRE, a database and software project he had built in 1980, and described a more elaborate information management system.[10]

With help from Robert Cailliau, he published a more formal proposal (on 12 November 1990) to build a "Hypertext project" called "WorldWideWeb" (one word, also "W3") as a "web" of "hypertext documents" to be viewed by "browsers" using a client–server architecture.[6] This proposal estimated that a read-only web would be developed within three months and that it would take six months to achieve "the creation of new links and new material by readers, [so that] authorship becomes universal" as well as "the automatic notification of a reader when new material of interest to him/her has become available." While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the wiki concept, blogs, Web 2.0 and RSS/Atom.[11]

The proposal was modeled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a spin-off from the Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship at Brown University. The Dynatext system, licensed by CERN, was a key player in the extension of SGML ISO 8879:1986 to Hypermedia within HyTime, but it was considered too expensive and had an inappropriate licensing policy for use in the general high energy physics community, namely a fee for each document and each document alteration.
The CERN datacenter in 2010 housing some WWW servers

A NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the world's first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web:[12] the first web browser (which was a web editor as well); the first web server; and the first web pages,[13] which described the project itself.

The first web page may be lost, but Paul Jones (computer technologist) of UNC-Chapel Hill in North Carolina revealed in May 2013 that he has a copy of a page given to him by Berners-Lee during a visit to UNC in 1991 which is the oldest known web page. Jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer.[14]

On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee posted a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the alt.hypertext newsgroup.[15] This date also marked the debut of the Web as a publicly available service on the Internet, although new users only access it after August 23. For this reason this is considered the internaut's day. Many newsmedia have reported that the first photo on the web was uploaded by Berners-Lee in 1992, an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes taken by Silvano de Gennaro; Gennaro has disclaimed this story, writing that media were "totally distorting our words for the sake of cheap sensationalism."[16]

The first server outside Europe was set up at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in Palo Alto, California, to host the SPIRES-HEP database. Accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event. The World Wide Web Consortium says December 1992,[17] whereas SLAC itself claims 1991.[18][19] This is supported by a W3C document titled A Little History of the World Wide Web.[20]

The crucial underlying concept of hypertext originated with older projects from the 1960s, such as the Hypertext Editing System (HES) at Brown University, Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu, and Douglas Engelbart's oN-Line System (NLS). Both Nelson and Engelbart were in turn inspired by Vannevar Bush's microfilm-based "memex", which was described in the 1945 essay "As We May Think".[21]

Berners-Lee's breakthrough was to marry hypertext to the Internet. In his book Weaving The Web, he explains that he had repeatedly suggested that a marriage between the two technologies was possible to members of both technical communities, but when no one took up his invitation, he finally assumed the project himself. In the process, he developed three essential technologies:

a system of globally unique identifiers for resources on the Web and elsewhere, the universal document identifier (UDI), later known as uniform resource locator (URL) and uniform resource identifier (URI);
the publishing language HyperText Markup Language (HTML);
the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).[22]

The World Wide Web had a number of differences from other hypertext systems available at the time. The web required only unidirectional links rather than bidirectional ones, making it possible for someone to link to another resource without action by the owner of that resource. It also significantly reduced the difficulty of implementing web servers and browsers (in comparison to earlier systems), but in turn presented the chronic problem of link rot. Unlike predecessors such as HyperCard, the World Wide Web was non-proprietary, making it possible to develop servers and clients independently and to add extensions without licensing restrictions. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, with no fees due.[23] Coming two months after the announcement that the server implementation of the Gopher protocol was no longer free to use, this produced a rapid shift away from Gopher and towards the Web. An early popular web browser was ViolaWWW for Unix and the X Windowing System.
Robert Cailliau, Jean-François Abramatic of IBM, and Tim Berners-Lee at the 10th anniversary of the World Wide Web Consortium.

Scholars generally agree that a turning point for the World Wide Web began with the introduction[24] of the Mosaic web browser[25] in 1993, a graphical browser developed by a team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding for Mosaic came from the U.S. High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative and the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, one of several computing developments initiated by U.S. Senator Al Gore.[26] Prior to the release of Mosaic, graphics were not commonly mixed with text in web pages and the web's popularity was less than older protocols in use over the Internet, such as Gopher and Wide Area Information Servers (WAIS). Mosaic's graphical user interface allowed the Web to become, by far, the most popular Internet protocol.

The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in October 1994. It was founded at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Laboratory for Computer Science (MIT/LCS) with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), which had pioneered the Internet; a year later, a second site was founded at INRIA (a French national computer research lab) with support from the European Commission DG InfSo; and in 1996, a third continental site was created in Japan at Keio University. By the end of 1994, while the total number of websites was still minute compared to present standards, quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the precursors or inspiration for today's most popular services.

Connected by the existing Internet, other websites were created around the world, adding international standards for domain names and HTML. Since then, Berners-Lee has played an active role in guiding the development of web standards (such as the markup languages in which web pages are composed), and has advocated his vision of a Semantic Web. The World Wide Web enabled the spread of information over the Internet through an easy-to-use and flexible format. It thus played an important role in popularizing use of the Internet.[27] Although the two terms are sometimes conflated in popular use, World Wide Web is not synonymous with Internet.[28] The web is a collection of documents and both client and server software using Internet protocols such as TCP/IP and HTTP.

Tim Berners-Lee was knighted in 2004 by Queen Elizabeth II for his contribution to the World Wide Web.
Function

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much distinction. However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not the same. The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks. In contrast, the web is one of the services that runs on the Internet. It is a collection of text documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs, usually accessed by web browsers from web servers. In short, the web can be thought of as an application "running" on the Internet.[29]

Viewing a web page on the World Wide Web normally begins either by typing the URL of the page into a web browser or by following a hyperlink to that page or resource. The web browser then initiates a series of communication messages, behind the scenes, in order to fetch and display it. In the 1990s, using a browser to view web pages—and to move from one web page to another through hyperlinks—came to be known as 'browsing,' 'web surfing,' or 'navigating the web'. Early studies of this new behavior investigated user patterns in using web browsers. One study, for example, found five user patterns: exploratory surfing, window surfing, evolved surfing, bounded navigation and targeted navigation.[30]

The following example demonstrates how a web browser works. Consider accessing a page with the URL http://example.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web.

First, the browser resolves the server-name portion of the URL (example.org) into an Internet Protocol address using the globally distributed database known as the Domain Name System (DNS); this lookup returns an IP address such as 208.80.152.2. The browser then requests the resource by sending an HTTP request across the Internet to the computer at that particular address. It makes the request to a particular application port in the underlying Internet Protocol Suite so that the computer receiving the request can distinguish an HTTP request from other network protocols it may be servicing such as e-mail delivery; the HTTP protocol normally uses port 80. The content of the HTTP request can be as simple as the two lines of text GET /wiki/World_Wide_Web HTTP/1.1 Host: example.org

The computer receiving the HTTP request delivers it to web server software listening for requests on port 80. If the web server can fulfill the request it sends an HTTP response back to the browser indicating success, which can be as simple as HTTP/1.0 200 OK Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8 followed by the content of the requested page. The Hypertext Markup Language for a basic web page looks like <html> <head> <title>Example.org – The World Wide Web</title> </head> ******> <p>The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and commonly known ...</p> </body> </html>

The web browser parses the HTML, interpreting the markup (<title>, <p> for paragraph, and such) that surrounds the words in order to draw the text on the screen.

Many web pages use HTML to reference the URLs of other resources such as images, other embedded media, scripts that affect page behavior, and Cascading Style Sheets that affect page layout. The browser will make additional HTTP requests to the web server for these other Internet media types. As it receives their content from the web server, the browser progressively renders the page onto the screen as specified by its HTML and these additional resources.
Linking

Most web pages contain hyperlinks to other related pages and perhaps to downloadable files, source documents, definitions and other web resources. In the underlying HTML, a hyperlink looks like <a href="http://example.org/wiki/Main_Page">Example.org, a free encyclopedia</a>
Graphic representation of a minute fraction of the WWW, demonstrating hyperlinks

Such a collection of useful, related resources, interconnected via hypertext links is dubbed a web of information. Publication on the Internet created what Tim Berners-Lee first called the WorldWideWeb (in its original CamelCase, which was subsequently discarded) in November 1990.[6]

The hyperlink structure of the WWW is described by the webgraph: the nodes of the webgraph correspond to the web pages (or URLs) the directed edges between them to the hyperlinks.

Over time, many web resources pointed to by hyperlinks disappear, relocate, or are replaced with different content. This makes hyperlinks obsolete, a phenomenon referred to in some circles as link rot and the hyperlinks affected by it are often called dead links. The ephemeral nature of the Web has prompted many efforts to archive web sites. The Internet Archive, active since 1996, is the best known of such efforts.
Dynamic updates of web pages
Main article: Ajax (programming)

********** is a scripting language that was initially developed in 1995 by Brendan Eich, then of Netscape, for use within web pages.[31] The standardised version is ECMAScript.[31] To make web pages more interactive, some web applications also use ********** techniques such as Ajax (asynchronous ********** and XML). Client-side script is delivered with the page that can make additional HTTP requests to the server, either in response to user actions such as mouse movements or clicks, or based on lapsed time. The server's responses are used to modify the current page rather than creating a new page with each response, so the server needs only to provide limited, incremental information. Multiple Ajax requests can be handled at the same time, and users can interact with the page while data is being retrieved. Web pages may also regularly poll the server to check whether new information is available.[32]
WWW prefix

Many hostnames used for the World Wide Web begin with www because of the long-standing practice of naming Internet hosts (servers) according to the services they provide. The hostname for a web server is often www, in the same way that it may be ftp for an FTP server, and news or nntp for a USENET news server. These host names appear as Domain Name System or (DNS) subdomain names, as in www.example.com. The use of 'www' as a subdomain name is not required by any technical or policy standard and many web sites do not use it; indeed, the first ever web server was called nxoc01.cern.ch.[33] According to Paolo Palazzi,[34] who worked at CERN along with Tim Berners-Lee, the popular use of 'www' subdomain was accidental; the World Wide Web project page was intended to be published at www.cern.ch while info.cern.ch was intended to be the CERN home page, however the dns records were never switched, and the practice of prepending 'www' to an institution's website domain name was subsequently copied. Many established websites still use 'www', or they invent other subdomain names such as 'www2', 'secure', etc.[citation needed]. Many such web servers are set up so that both the domain root (e.g., example.com) and the www subdomain (e.g., www.example.com) refer to the same site; others require one form or the other, or they may map to different web sites.

The use of a subdomain name is useful for load balancing incoming web traffic by creating a CNAME record that points to a cluster of web servers. Since, currently, only a subdomain can be used in a CNAME, the same result cannot be achieved by using the bare domain root.[citation needed]

When a user submits an incomplete domain name to a web browser in its address bar input field, some web browsers automatically try adding the prefix "www" to the beginning of it and possibly ".com", ".org" and ".net" at the end, depending on what might be missing. For example, entering 'microsoft' may be transformed to http://www.microsoft.com/ and 'openoffice' to http://www.openoffice.org. This feature started appearing in early versions of Mozilla Firefox, when it still had the working title 'Firebird' in early 2003, from an earlier practice in browsers such as Lynx.[35] It is reported that Microsoft was granted a US patent for the same idea in 2008, but only for mobile devices.[36]

In English, www is usually read as double-u double-u double-u.[citation needed] Some users pronounce it dub-dub-dub, particularly in New Zealand. Stephen Fry, in his "Podgrammes" series of podcasts, pronounces it wuh wuh wuh.[citation needed] The English writer Douglas Adams once quipped in The Independent on Sunday (1999): "The World Wide Web is the only thing I know of whose shortened form takes three times longer to say than what it's short for".[citation needed] In Mandarin Chinese, World Wide Web is commonly translated via a phono-semantic matching to wàn wéi wǎng (万维网), which satisfies www and literally means "myriad dimensional net",[37] a translation that very appropriately reflects the design concept and proliferation of the World Wide Web. Tim Berners-Lee's web-space states that World Wide Web is officially spelled as three separate words, each capitalised, with no intervening hyphens.[38]

Use of the www prefix is declining as Web 2.0 web applications seek to brand their domain names and make them easily pronounceable.[39] As the mobile web grows in popularity, services like Gmail.com, MySpace.com, Facebook.com and Twitter.com are most often discussed without adding www to the domain (or, indeed, the .com).
Scheme specifiers: http and https

The scheme specifier http:// or https:// at the start of a web URI refers to Hypertext Transfer Protocol or HTTP Secure respectively. Unlike www, which has no specific purpose, these specify the communication protocol to be used for the request and response. The HTTP protocol is fundamental to the operation of the World Wide Web and the added encryption layer in HTTPS is essential when confidential information such as passwords or banking information are to be exchanged over the public Internet. Web browsers usually prepend http:// to addresses too, if omitted.
Web servers
Main article: Web server

The primary function of a web server is to deliver web pages on the request to clients. This means delivery of HTML documents and any additional content that may be included by a document, such as images, style sheets and scripts.
Privacy
Main article: Internet privacy

Every time a web page is requested from a web server the server can identify, and usually it logs, the IP address from which the request arrived. Equally, unless set not to do so, most web browsers record the web pages that have been requested and viewed in a history feature, and usually cache much of the content locally. Unless HTTPS encryption is used, web requests and responses travel in plain text across the internet and they can be viewed, recorded and cached by intermediate systems.

When a web page asks for, and the user supplies, personally identifiable information such as their real name, address, e-mail address, etc., then a connection can be made between the current web traffic and that individual. If the website uses HTTP cookies, username and password authentication, or other tracking techniques, then it will be able to relate other web visits, before and after, to the identifiable information provided. In this way it is possible for a web-based organisation to develop and build a profile of the individual people who use its site or sites. It may be able to build a record for an individual that includes information about their leisure activities, their shopping interests, their profession, and other aspects of their demographic profile. These profiles are obviously of potential interest to marketeers, advertisers and others. Depending on the website's terms and conditions and the local laws that apply information from these profiles may be sold, shared, or passed to other organisations without the user being informed. For many ordinary people, this means little more than some unexpected e-mails in their in-box, or some uncannily relevant advertising on a future web page. For others, it can mean that time spent indulging an unusual interest can result in a deluge of further targeted marketing that may be unwelcome. Law enforcement, counter terrorism and espionage agencies can also identify, target and track individuals based on what appear to be their interests or proclivities on the web.

Social networking sites make a point of trying to get the user to truthfully expose their real names, interests and locations. This makes the social networking experience more realistic and therefore engaging for all their users. On the other hand, photographs uploaded and unguarded statements made will be identified to the individual, who may regret some decisions to publish these data. Employers, schools, parents and other relatives may be influenced by aspects of social networking profiles that the posting individual did not intend for these audiences. On-line bullies may make use of personal information to harass or stalk users. Modern social networking websites allow fine grained control of the privacy settings for each individual posting, but these can be complex and not easy to find or use, especially for beginners.[40]

Photographs and videos posted onto websites have caused particular problems, as they can add a person's face to an on-line profile. With modern and potential facial recognition technology, it may then be possible to relate that face with other, previously anonymous, images, events and scenarios that have been imaged elsewhere. Because of image caching, mirroring and copying, it is difficult to remove an image from the World Wide Web.
Intellectual property
Question book-new.svg
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Main article: Intellectual property

The intellectual property rights for any creative work initially rests with its creator. Web users who want to publish their work onto the World Wide Web, however, need to be aware of the details of the way they do it. If artwork, photographs, writings, poems, or technical innovations are published by their creator onto a privately owned web server, then they may choose the copyright and other conditions freely themselves. This is unusual though; more commonly work is uploaded to websites and servers that are owned by other organizations. It depends upon the terms and conditions of the site or service provider to what extent the original owner automatically signs over rights to their work by the choice of destination and by the act of uploading.[citation needed]

Some users of the web erroneously assume that everything they may find online is freely available to them as if it was in the public domain, which is not always the case. Content owners that are aware of this widespread belief, may expect that their published content will probably be used in some capacity somewhere without their permission. Some content publishers therefore embed digital watermarks in their media files, sometimes charging users to receive unmarked copies for legitimate use. Digital rights management includes forms of access control technology that further limit the use of digital content even after it has been bought or downloaded.[citation needed]
Security

The web has become criminals' preferred pathway for spreading malware. Cybercrime carried out on the web can include identity theft, fraud, espionage and intelligence gathering.[41] Web-based vulnerabilities now outnumber traditional computer security concerns,[42][43] and as measured by Google, about one in ten web pages may contain malicious code.[44] Most web-based attacks take place on legitimate websites, and most, as measured by Sophos, are hosted in the United States, China and Russia.[45] The most common of all malware threats is SQL injection attacks against websites.[46] Through HTML and URIs the web was vulnerable to attacks like cross-site scripting (XSS) that came with the introduction of **********[47] and were exacerbated to some degree by Web 2.0 and Ajax web design that favors the use of scripts.[48] Today by one estimate, 70% of all websites are open to XSS attacks on their users.[49]

Proposed solutions vary to extremes. Large security vendors like McAfee already design governance and compliance suites to meet post-9/11 regulations,[50] and some, like Finjan have recommended active real-time inspection of code and all content regardless of its source.[41] Some have argued that for enterprise to see security as a business opportunity rather than a cost center,[51] "ubiquitous, always-on digital rights management" enforced in the infrastructure by a handful of organizations must replace the hundreds of companies that today secure data and networks.[52] Jonathan Zittrain has said users sharing responsibility for computing safety is far preferable to locking down the Internet.[53]
Standards
Main article: Web standards

Many formal standards and other technical specifications and software define the operation of different aspects of the World Wide Web, the Internet, and computer information exchange. Many of the documents are the work of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), headed by Berners-Lee, but some are produced by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and other organizations.

Usually, when web standards are discussed, the following publications are seen as foundational:

Recommendations for markup languages, especially HTML and XHTML, from the W3C. These define the structure and interpretation of hypertext documents.
Recommendations for stylesheets, especially CSS, from the W3C.
Standards for ECMAScript (usually in the form of **********), from Ecma International.
Recommendations for the Document Object Model, from W3C.

Additional publications provide definitions of other essential technologies for the World Wide Web, including, but not limited to, the following:

Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), which is a universal system for referencing resources on the Internet, such as hypertext documents and images. URIs, often called URLs, are defined by the IETF's RFC 3986 / STD 66: Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax, as well as its predecessors and numerous URI scheme-defining RFCs;
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), especially as defined by RFC 2616: HTTP/1.1 and RFC 2617: HTTP Authentication, which specify how the browser and server authenticate each other.

Accessibility
Main article: Web accessibility

There are methods available for accessing the web in alternative mediums and formats, so as to enable use by individuals with disabilities. These disabilities may be visual, auditory, physical, speech related, cognitive, neurological, or some combination therin. Accessibility features also help others with temporary disabilities like a broken arm or the aging population as their abilities change.[54] The Web is used for receiving information as well as providing information and interacting with society. The World Wide Web Consortium claims it essential that the Web be accessible in order to provide equal access and equal opportunity to people with disabilities.[55] Tim Berners-Lee once noted, "The power of the Web is in its universality. Access by everyone regardless of disability is an essential aspect."[54] Many countries regulate web accessibility as a requirement for websites.[56] International cooperation in the W3C Web Accessibility Initiative led to simple guidelines that web content authors as well as software developers can use to make the Web accessible to persons who may or may not be using assistive technology.[54][57]
Internationalization

The W3C Internationalization Activity assures that web technology will work in all languages, scripts, and cultures.[58] Beginning in 2004 or 2005, Unicode gained ground and eventually in December 2007 surpassed both ASCII and Western European as the Web's most frequently used character encoding.[59] Originally RFC 3986 allowed resources to be identified by URI in a subset of US-ASCII. RFC 3987 allows more characters—any character in the Universal Character Set—and now a resource can be identified by IRI in any language.[60]
Statistics

Between 2005 and 2010, the number of web users doubled, and was expected to surpass two billion in 2010.[61] Early studies in 1998 and 1999 estimating the size of the web using capture/recapture methods showed that much of the web was not indexed by search engines and the web was much larger than expected.[62][63] According to a 2001 study, there were a massive number, over 550 billion, of documents on the Web, mostly in the invisible Web, or Deep Web.[64] A 2002 survey of 2,024 million web pages[65] determined that by far the most web content was in the English language: 56.4%; next were pages in German (7.7%), French (5.6%), and Japanese (4.9%). A more recent study, which used web searches in 75 different languages to sample the web, determined that there were over 11.5 billion web pages in the publicly indexable web as of the end of January 2005.[66] As of March 2009, the indexable web contains at least 25.21 billion pages.[67] On 25 July 2008, Google software engineers Jesse Alpert and Nissan Hajaj announced that Google Search had discovered one trillion unique URLs.[68] As of May 2009, over 109.5 million domains operated.[69][not in citation given] Of these 74% were commercial or other domains operating in the .com generic top-level domain.[69]

Statistics measuring a website's popularity are usually based either on the number of page views or on associated server 'hits' (file requests) that it receives.
Speed issues

Frustration over congestion issues in the Internet infrastructure and the high latency that results in slow browsing has led to a pejorative name for the World Wide Web: the World Wide Wait.[70] Speeding up the Internet is an ongoing discussion over the use of peering and QoS technologies. Other solutions to reduce the congestion can be found at W3C.[71] Guidelines for web response times are:[72]

0.1 second (one tenth of a second). Ideal response time. The user does not sense any interruption.
1 second. Highest acceptable response time. Download times above 1 second interrupt the user experience.
10 seconds. Unacceptable response time. The user experience is interrupted and the user is likely to leave the site or system.

Caching
Main article: Web cache

If a user revisits a web page after only a short interval, the page data may not need to be re-obtained from the source web server. Almost all web browsers cache recently obtained data, usually on the local hard drive. HTTP requests sent by a browser will usually ask only for data that has changed since the last download. If the locally cached data are still current, they will be reused. Caching helps reduce the amount of web traffic on the Internet. The decision about expiration is made independently for each downloaded file, whether image, stylesheet, **********, HTML, or other web resource. Thus even on sites with highly dynamic content, many of the basic resources need to be refreshed only occasionally. Web site designers find it worthwhile to collate resources such as CSS data and ********** into a few site-wide files so that they can be cached efficiently. This helps reduce page download times and lowers demands on the Web server.

There are other components of the Internet that can cache web content. Corporate and academic firewalls often cache Web resources requested by one user for the benefit of all. (See also caching proxy server.) Some search engines also store cached content from websites. Apart from the facilities built into web servers that can determine when files have been updated and so need to be re-sent, designers of dynamically generated web pages can control the HTTP headers sent back to requesting users, so that transient or sensitive pages are not cached. Internet banking and news sites frequently use this facility. Data requested with an HTTP 'GET' is likely to be cached if other conditions are met; data obtained in response to a 'POST' is assumed to depend on the data that was POSTed and so is not cached.
See also
Portal icon Internet portal

Electronic publishing
Lists of websites
Prestel
Streaming media
Web 1.0
Webgraph

References

^ Jump up to: a b Quittner, Joshua (29 March 1999). "Tim Berners Lee – Time 100 People of the Century". Time Magazine. Retrieved 17 May 2010. "He wove the World Wide Web and created a mass medium for the 21st century. The World Wide Web is Berners-Lee's alone. He designed it. He loosed it on the world. And he more than anyone else has fought to keep it open, nonproprietary and free."
Jump up ^ Tim Berners-Lee. "Frequently asked questions". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "World Wide Web Consortium". "The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)..."
Jump up ^ "Le Web a été inventé... en France!". Le Point. 1 January 2012. Retrieved 2013-04-05.
Jump up ^ WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a HyperText Project. W3.org (1990-11-12). Retrieved on 2013-07-17.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Berners-Lee, Tim; Cailliau, Robert (12 November 1990). "WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a hypertexts Project". Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Berners-Lee, Tim. "Pre-W3C Web and Internet Background". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
Jump up ^ "Aug. 7, 1991: Ladies and Gentlemen, the World Wide Web" Wired. Retrieved 15 June 2013.
Jump up ^ von Braun, Wernher (May 1970). "TV Broadcast Satellite". Popular Science: 65–66. Retrieved 12 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Berners-Lee, Tim (March 1989). "Information Management: A Proposal". W3C. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Tim Berners-Lee's original World Wide Web browser". "With recent phenomena like blogs and wikis, the web is beginning to develop the kind of collaborative nature that its inventor envisaged from the start."
Jump up ^ "Tim Berners-Lee: client". W3.org. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "First Web pages". W3.org. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Murawski, John (24 May 2013). "Hunt for world's oldest WWW page leads to UNC Chapel Hill". News & Observer.
Jump up ^ "Short summary of the World Wide Web project". Google. 6 August 1991. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Silvano de Gennaro disclaims 'the first photo on the web'". Retrieved 27 July 2012. "If you read well our website, it says that it was, to our knowledge, the 'first photo of a band'. Dozens of media are totally distorting our words for the sake of cheap sensationalism. Nobody knows which was the first photo on the web."
Jump up ^ "W3C timeline". Retrieved 30 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "About SPIRES". Retrieved 30 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Early World Wide Web at SLAC".
Jump up ^ "A Little History of the World Wide Web".
Jump up ^ Conklin, Jeff (1987), IEEE Computer 20 (9): 17–41
Jump up ^ "Inventor of the Week Archive: The World Wide Web". Massachusetts Institute of Technology: MIT School of Engineering. Retrieved 23 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Ten Years Public Domain for the Original Web Software". Tenyears-www.web.cern.ch. 30 April 2003. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Mosaic Web Browser History – NCSA, Marc Andreessen, Eric Bina". Livinginternet.com. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "NCSA Mosaic – September 10, 1993 Demo". Totic.org. Retrieved 27 July 2009.[dead link]
Jump up ^ "Vice President Al Gore's ENIAC Anniversary Speech". Cs.washington.edu. 14 February 1996. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Internet legal definition of Internet". West's Encyclopedia of American Law, edition 2. Free Online Law Dictionary. 15 July 2009. Retrieved 25 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "WWW (World Wide Web) Definition". TechTerms. Retrieved 19 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "The W3C Technology Stack". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Muylle, Steve; Rudy Moenaert, Marc Despont (1999). "A grounded theory of World Wide Web search behaviour". Journal of Marketing Communications 5 (3): 143.
^ Jump up to: a b Hamilton, Naomi (31 July 2008). "The A-Z of Programming Languages: **********". Computerworld. IDG. Retrieved 12 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Buntin, Seth (23 September 2008). "jQuery Polling plugin". Retrieved 2009-08-22.
Jump up ^ Berners-Lee, Tim. "Frequently asked questions by the Press". W3C. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Palazzi, P (2011) 'The Early Days of the WWW at CERN'
Jump up ^ "automatically adding www.___.com". mozillaZine. 16 May 2003. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Masnick, Mike (7 July 2008). "Microsoft Patents Adding 'www.' And '.com' To Text". Techdirt. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "MDBG Chinese-English dictionary – Translate". Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Frequently asked questions by the Press – Tim BL". W3.org. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "It's not your grandfather's Internet". Strategic Finance. 2010.
Jump up ^ boyd, danah; Hargittai, Eszter (July 2010). "Facebook privacy settings: Who cares?". First Monday (University of Illinois at Chicago) 15 (8).
^ Jump up to: a b Ben-Itzhak, Yuval (18 April 2008). "Infosecurity 2008 – New defence strategy in battle against e-crime". ComputerWeekly (Reed Business Information). Retrieved 20 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Christey, Steve and Martin, Robert A. (22 May 2007). "Vulnerability Type Distributions in CVE (version 1.1)". MITRE Corporation. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Symantec Internet Security Threat Report: Trends for July–December 2007 (Executive Summary) (PDF) XIII. Symantec Corp. April 2008. pp. 1–2. Retrieved 11 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Google searches web's dark side". BBC News. 11 May 2007. Retrieved 26 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Security Threat Report" (PDF). Sophos. Q1 2008. Retrieved 24 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "Security threat report" (PDF). Sophos. July 2008. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
Jump up ^ Fogie, Seth, Jeremiah Grossman, Robert Hansen, and Anton Rager (2007). Cross Site Scripting Attacks: XSS Exploits and Defense (PDF). Syngress, Elsevier Science & Technology. pp. 68–69, 127. ISBN 1-59749-154-3. Archived from the original on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008.
Jump up ^ O'Reilly, Tim (30 September 2005). "What Is Web 2.0". O'Reilly Media. pp. 4–5. Retrieved 4 June 2008. and AJAX web applications can introduce security vulnerabilities like "client-side security controls, increased attack surfaces, and new possibilities for Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)", in Ritchie, Paul (March 2007). "The security risks of AJAX/web 2.0 applications" (PDF). Infosecurity (Elsevier). Archived from the original on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 6 June 2008. which cites Hayre, Jaswinder S. and Kelath, Jayasankar (22 June 2006). "Ajax Security Basics". SecurityFocus. Retrieved 6 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Berinato, Scott (1 January 2007). "Software Vulnerability Disclosure: The Chilling Effect". CSO (CXO Media). p. 7. Archived from the original on 18 April 2008. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Prince, Brian (9 April 2008). "McAfee Governance, Risk and Compliance Business Unit". eWEEK (Ziff Davis Enterprise Holdings). Retrieved 25 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Preston, Rob (12 April 2008). "Down To Business: It's Past Time To Elevate The Infosec Conversation". InformationWeek (United Business Media). Retrieved 25 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Claburn, Thomas (6 February 2007). "RSA's Coviello Predicts Security Consolidation". InformationWeek (United Business Media). Retrieved 25 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Duffy Marsan, Carolyn (9 April 2008). "How the iPhone is killing the 'Net". Network World (IDG). Retrieved 17 April 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI)". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 7 April 2009.[dead link]
Jump up ^ "Developing a Web Accessibility Business Case for Your Organization: Overview". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 7 April 2009.[dead link]
Jump up ^ "Legal and Policy Factors in Developing a Web Accessibility Business Case for Your Organization". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 7 April 2009.
Jump up ^ "Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) Overview". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 7 April 2009.
Jump up ^ "Internationalization (I18n) Activity". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 10 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Davis, Mark (5 April 2008). "Moving to Unicode 5.1". Google. Retrieved 10 April 2009.
Jump up ^ "World Wide Web Consortium Supports the IETF URI Standard and IRI Proposed Standard" (Press release). World Wide Web Consortium. 26 January 2005. Retrieved 10 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Lynn, Jonathan (19 October 2010). "Internet users to exceed 2 billion ...". Reuters. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
Jump up ^ S. Lawrence, C.L. Giles, "Searching the World Wide Web," Science, 280(5360), 98–100, 1998.
Jump up ^ S. Lawrence, C.L. Giles, "Accessibility of Information on the Web," Nature, 400, 107–109, 1999.
Jump up ^ "The 'Deep' Web: Surfacing Hidden Value". Brightplanet.com. Archived from the original on 4 April 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Distribution of languages on the Internet". Netz-tipp.de. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Alessio Signorini. "Indexable Web Size". Cs.uiowa.edu. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "The size of the World Wide Web". Worldwidewebsize.com. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Alpert, Jesse; Hajaj, Nissan (25 July 2008). "We knew the web was big...". The Official Google Blog.
^ Jump up to: a b "Domain Counts & Internet Statistics". Name Intelligence. Retrieved 17 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "World Wide Wait". TechEncyclopedia. United Business Media. Retrieved 10 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Khare, Rohit and Jacobs, Ian (1999). "W3C Recommendations Reduce 'World Wide Wait'". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 10 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Nielsen, Jakob (from Miller 1968; Card et al. 1991) (1994). "5". Usability Engineering: Response Times: The Three Important Limits. Morgan Kaufmann. Retrieved 10 April 2009.

Further reading
Wikimedia Commons has media related to W3C.

Niels Brügger, ed. Web History (2010) 362 pages; Historical perspective on the World Wide Web, including issues of culture, content, and preservation.
Fielding, R.; Gettys, J.; Mogul, J.; Frystyk, H.; Masinter, L.; Leach, P.; Berners-Lee, T. (June 1999). Hypertext Transfer Protocol – HTTP/1.1. Request For Comments 2616. Information Sciences Institute.[dead link]
Berners-Lee, Tim; Bray, Tim; Connolly, Dan; Cotton, Paul; Fielding, Roy; Jeckle, Mario; Lilley, Chris; Mendelsohn, Noah; Orchard, David; Walsh, Norman; Williams, Stuart (15 December 2004). Architecture of the World Wide Web, Volume One. Version 20041215. W3C.
Polo, Luciano (2003). "World Wide Web Technology Architecture: A Conceptual Analysis". New Devices. Retrieved 31 July 2005.[dead link]
Skau, H.O. (March 1990). "The World Wide Web and Health Information". New Devices. Retrieved 1989. [dead link]

External links
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Nets, Webs and the Information Infrastructure

Early archive of the first Web site
Internet Statistics: Growth and Usage of the Web and the Internet
Living Internet A comprehensive history of the Internet, including the World Wide Web.
Web Design and Development at the Open Directory Project
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
W3C Recommendations Reduce "World Wide Wait"
World Wide Web Size Daily estimated size of the World Wide Web.
Antonio A. Casilli, Some Elements for a Sociology of Online Interactions
The Erdős Webgraph Server offers weekly updated graph representation of a constantly increasing fraction of the WWW.

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Serbia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Republika Srpska.
This article is about the European country. For other uses, see Serbia (disambiguation).
Page semi-protected
Republic of Serbia
Република Србија
Republika Srbija

Flag Coat of arms
Anthem:
Боже правде
Bože pravde
God of Justice
Menu
0:00
Location of Serbia (green) and Kosovo (light green)in Europe (dark grey).
Location of Serbia (green) and Kosovo (light green)
in Europe (dark grey).
Capital
and largest city Small Coat of Arms Belgrade.svg Belgrade
44°48′N 20°28′E
Official languages Serbian
Ethnic groups (2011[1])

83.3% Serbs
3.5% Hungarians
2.0% Roma
2.0% Bosniaks
6.8% other
2.2% unspecified
(excluding Kosovo)

Demonym Serbian
Government Parliamentary republic
- President Tomislav Nikolić
- Prime Minister Ivica Dačić
- Speaker of Parliament Nebojša Stefanović
Legislature National Assembly
Formation
- Serbian Principality 768
- Serbian Kingdom 1217
- Serbian Empire 1346
- Fall of Serbian Despotate 1459
- Principality of Serbia 1817
- Recognition 1878
- Kingdom of Serbia 1882
- Unification 1912–1918a
- Independent republic 2006
Area
- Total 88,361 km2 (113th)
34,116 sq mi
- Water (%) 0.13 (including Kosovo)
Population
- 2011 census 7,186,862 (excluding Kosovo)[2] (100th)
- Density 92.8/km2 (112th)
211/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2013 estimate
- Total $80.467 billion[3] (76th)
- Per capita $11,085 (excluding Kosovo)[3] (82nd)
GDP (nominal) 2013 estimate
- Total $43.7 billion[3] (79th)
- Per capita $6,017 (excluding Kosovo)[3] (92nd)
Gini (2011) 28.2
low
HDI (2013) 0.769[4]
high · 64th
Currency Serbian dinar (RSD)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
- Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
Drives on the right
Calling code +381
ISO 3166 code RS
Internet TLD

.rs
.срб

a. Raška, Kosovo in 1912, Vojvodina, Syrmia in 1918.

Serbia Listeni/ˈsɜrbiə/, officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija, pronounced [rɛpǔblika sř̩bija]), is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. A landlocked country in relative proximity to the Mediterranean,[5] Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia, and Montenegro to the west; it also borders Albania through the disputed territory of Kosovo. The capital of Serbia, Belgrade, is among Europe's oldest cities and one of the largest in Southeast Europe.

Following their settlement in the Balkans, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and Constantinople in 1217; the state was elevated to the Serbian Empire, in 1346. By the mid-16th century, the entire territory of modern-day Serbia was annexed by the Ottoman Empire, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 19th century, the Serbian revolution established the nation-state as the region's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism in the Balkans.[6] Following disastrous casualties in World War I, and subsequent unification of Habsburg crownlands of Vojvodina and Syrmia with Serbia, the country co-founded Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples, which would exist in various formations until 2006, when Montenegro declared its independence. In 2008 the parliament of UNMIK Kosovo declared independence, with divergent responses from the international community.

Serbia is a member of the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC, and CEFTA. It is also an official candidate for membership in the European Union,[7] which entered the EU accession talks procedure,[8][9] acceding country to the WTO[10] and is a militarily neutral state.[11] Serbia has a high Human Development Index and provides a universal health care system and free primary and secondary education. It is an upper-middle income economy (WB, IMF) with the service sector dominating country's economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture.

Contents

1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Early history
2.2 Middle Ages
2.3 Ottoman and Habsburg rule
2.4 Revolution and independence
2.5 Balkan Wars, World War I and the First Yugoslavia
2.6 World War II and the Second Yugoslavia
2.7 Breakup of Yugoslavia and political transition
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Hydrology
3.3 Environment
4 Politics
4.1 Administrative divisions
4.2 Foreign relations
4.3 Military
5 Demographics
5.1 Religion
5.2 Language
6 Economy
6.1 Agriculture
6.2 Industry
6.3 Energy
6.4 Transport
6.5 Telecommunications
6.6 Tourism
7 Education and science
8 Culture
8.1 Art
8.2 Literature
8.3 Music
8.4 Theatre and cinema
8.5 Media
8.6 Cuisine
8.7 Sports
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links

Etymology
Main article: Names of the Serbs and Serbia
Clay figure from Vinča culture, 4000–4500 BC, British Museum

The name "Serbia" was first mentioned as Greek: Σέρβια, meaning "land of the Serbs". There are many theories regarding the origin of the name of the Serbs. The most likely is that it is derived from the Old Slavic root *serb-, meaning "same".[12] Another proposed etymology is that of the Indo-European root *ser- "to watch over, protect", akin to Latin servare "to keep, guard, protect, preserve, observe".[13]
History
Main article: History of Serbia
Early history
Main articles: Prehistoric sites in Serbia and Roman heritage in Serbia
Sirmium, one of 4 Roman capitals during Tetrarchy

The Neolithic Starčevo and Vinča cultures existed in or near Belgrade and dominated the Balkans (as well as parts of Central Europe and Asia Minor) 8,500 years ago.[14][15] Lepenski Vir and Vinča-Belo Brdo are two important sites of these cultures, located at the banks of the Danube. Around 1000 BC, the Paleo-Balkan peoples known as Thracians, Dacians, Illyrians developed in the Balkans. Ancient Greeks expanded into the south of modern Serbia in the 4th century BC, the northwesternmost point of Alexander the Great's empire being the town of Kale-Krševica.[16] The Celtic tribe of Scordisci settled throughout the lands that eventually became Serbia in the 3rd century BC and built several fortifications, including those at Singidunum (present-day Belgrade) and Naissos (present-day Niš). The Scordisci formed their own tribal state in this area and the capital of that state was Singidunum.

The Romans conquered parts of modern-day Serbia in the 2nd century BC; in 167 BC when conquering the west, establishing the province of Illyricum, and the rest of the central part of present-day Serbia in 75 BC, establishing the province of Moesia Superior. The modern-day Srem region was conquered in 9 BC and Bačka and Banat in 106 AD after the Dacian wars. Despite its small size, contemporary Serbia extends fully or partially over several Roman provinces such as Moesia, Pannonia, Praevalitana, Dalmatia, Dacia and Macedonia. The chief towns of Upper Moesia (and wider) were: Singidunum, Viminacium, Remesiana, Naissus and especially, Sirmium which served as a Roman capital during the Tetrarchy.[17] Seventeen Roman Emperors were born in the area of modern-day Serbia, second only to contemporary Italy.[18] The most famous of these was Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor, who issued an edict ordering religious tolerance throughout the Empire. When the Roman Empire was divided in 395, the region remained under the eastern Byzantine Empire. After the 520s, Slavs appeared in the Byzantine Empire in great numbers.[19]
Old Ras, medieval royal capital, UNESCO
Coronation of Dušan I as East Roman Emperor in 1346.
Siege of Belgrade (1456)
Middle Ages
Main article: Serbia in the Middle Ages

The Serbs, as Slavs in the Byzantine world, lived in the so-called Slav lands, territories initially out of Byzantine control and independent.[20] In the 8th century, the Vlastimirović dynasty established the Serbian Principality. In 822, Serbia "stretched over the greater part of Dalmatia",[21] and Christianity was adopted as state religion in ca 870.[22] In the mid-10th century the state had emerged into a tribal confederation that stretched to the shores of the Adriatic Sea by the Neretva, the Sava, the Morava, and Skadar.[23] The state disintegrated after the death of the last known Vlastimirid ruler; the Byzantines annexed the region and held it for a century, until 1040 when the Serbs under the leadership of what would become the Vojislavljević dynasty revolted in Duklja, a maritime region.[24] In 1091, the Vukanović dynasty established the Serbian Grand Principality, based in Rascia.[24] The two-halves were reunited in 1142.[25]

In 1166, Stefan Nemanja assumed the throne, marking the beginning of a prospering Serbia, henceforth under the rule of the Nemanjić dynasty.[26] Nemanja's son Rastko (posth. Saint Sava), gained autocephaly for the Serbian Church in 1217 and authored the oldest known constitution, and at the same time Stefan the First-Crowned established the Serbian Kingdom.[27] Medieval Serbia reached its peak during the reign of Dušan the Mighty, who took advantage of the Byzantine civil war and doubled the size of the state by conquering territories to the south and east at the expense of Byzantium, reaching as far as the Peloponnese, also being crowned Emperor of Serbs and Greeks along the way. The Battle of Kosovo in 1389 marks a turning point and is considered as a beginning of the fall of the medieval Serbian state. The magnate families Lazarević and Branković ruled the suzerain Serbian Despotate afterwards (in the 15th and 16th centuries).

After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 and the Siege of Belgrade, the Serbian Despotate fell in 1459 following the siege of the provisional capital of Smederevo. The Smederevo Fortress is the largest medieval lowland type of fortresses in Europe. By 1455, central Serbia was completely conquered by the Ottoman Empire.[28] After repelling Ottoman attacks for over 70 years, Belgrade finally fell in 1521, opening the way for Ottoman expansion into Central Europe. Vojvodina, as a part of Habsburg Empire, resisted Ottoman rule until well into the 16th century.
Ottoman and Habsburg rule
Main articles: History of Ottoman Serbia and Great Serb Migrations

After the loss of independence to the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, Serbia briefly regained sovereignty under Jovan Nenad in the 16th century. Three Habsburg invasions and numerous rebellions constantly challenged Ottoman rule. One famous incident was the Banat Uprising in 1595, which was part of the Long War between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs.[29] The area of modern Vojvodina endured a century-long Ottoman occupation before being ceded to the Habsburg Empire at the end of the 17th century under the Treaty of Karlowitz.
Examples of Ottoman and Habsburg heritage of Serbia

In all Serb lands south of the rivers Danube and Sava, the nobility was eliminated and the peasantry was enserfed to Ottoman masters, while much of the clergy fled or were confined to the isolated monasteries. Under the Ottoman system, Serbs as the Christians were considered an inferior class of people and subjected to heavy taxes and a small portion of the Serbian populace experienced Islamisation. Ottomans abolished Serbian patriarchate (1459) but reestablished it however in 1555, providing for limited continuation of Serbian cultural traditions within the empire.[30]

As the Great Serb Migrations depopulated most of southern Serbia, the Serbs sought refuge across the Danube River in Vojvodina to the north and the Military Frontier in the west, where they were granted rights by the Austrian crown under measures such as the Statuta Wallachorum of 1630. The ecclesiastical center of the Serbs also moved northwards, to the Metropolitanate of Sremski Karlovci, as the Patriarchate of Peć was once-again abolished by the Ottomans in 1766.[31] Following several petitions, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I formally granted Serbs who wished to leave the right to their autonomous crownland.[32]
Revolution and independence
Main articles: Serbian Revolution, Principality of Serbia, and Kingdom of Serbia
See also: Serbian Vojvodina and May Overthrow
Karađorđe Petrović and Miloš Obrenović, leaders of the Serbian Revolution
Principality and Habsburg Serbia in 1848
May Assembly

The Serbian Revolution for independence from the Ottoman Empire lasted eleven years, from 1804 until 1815. The revolution comprised two separate uprisings which gained autonomy from the Ottoman Empire that eventually evolved towards full independence (1835–1867).[33][34]

During the First Serbian Uprising, led by Duke Karađorđe Petrović, Serbia was independent for almost a decade before the Ottoman army was able to reoccupy the country. Shortly after this, the Second Serbian Uprising began. Led by Miloš Obrenović, it ended in 1815 with a compromise between Serbian revolutionaries and Ottoman authorities.[35] Likewise, Serbia was one of the first nations in the Balkans to abolish feudalism.[36] The Convention of Ackerman in 1826, the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 and finally, the Hatt-i Sharif, recognized the suzerainty of Serbia. The first Serbian Constitution was adopted on 15 February 1835.[37][38]

Following the clashes between the Ottoman army and Serbs in Belgrade in 1862, and under pressure from the Great Powers, by 1867 the last Turkish soldiers left the Principality. By enacting a new constitution without consulting the Porte, Serbian diplomats confirmed the de facto independence of the country. In 1876, Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire, proclaiming its unification with Bosnia. The formal independence of the country was internationally recognized at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which formally ended the Russo-Turkish War; this treaty, however, prohibited Serbia from uniting with Bosnia by placing it under Austro-Hungarian occupation, alongside the occupation of Raška (Sandžak).[39] From 1815 to 1903, the Principality of Serbia was ruled by the House of Obrenović, except from 1842 to 1858, when it was led by Prince Aleksandar Karađorđević. In 1882, Serbia became a Kingdom, ruled by King Milan I. In 1903, following the May Overthrow, the House of Karađorđević, descendants of the revolutionary leader Karađorđe Petrović, assumed power. The 1848 revolution in Austria lead to the establishment of the autonomous territory of Serbian Vojvodina. By 1849, the region was transformed into the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar.
Balkan Wars, World War I and the First Yugoslavia
Main articles: Balkan Wars, Serbian Campaign (World War I), and Kingdom of Yugoslavia

In the course of the First Balkan War in 1912, the Balkan League defeated the Ottoman Empire and conquered its European territories, which enabled territorial expansion into Raška and Kosovo. The Second Balkan War soon ensued when Bulgaria turned on its former allies, but was defeated, resulting Treaty of Bucharest. In two years, Serbia enlarged its territory by 80% and its population by 50%;[40] it also suffered high casualties on the eve of World War I, with around 20,000 dead.[41]
Serbian soldiers on the island of Corfu during World War I, 1916–1918

On 28 June 1914, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Young Bosnia organization, led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia.[42] In defense of its ally Serbia, Russia mobilized its troops, which resulted in Austria-Hungary's ally Germany declaring war on Russia. The retaliation by Austria-Hungary against Serbia activated a series of military alliances that set off a chain reaction of war declarations across the continent, leading to the outbreak of World War I within a month.[43] Serbia won the first major battles of World War I, including the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara – marking the first Allied victories against the Central Powers in World War I.[44] Despite initial success, it was eventually overpowered by the Central Powers in 1915. Most of its army and some people went into exile to Greece and Corfu, where they recovered, regrouped and returned to the Macedonian front to lead a final breakthrough through enemy lines on 15 September 1918, liberating Serbia and defeating the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria.[45] Serbia, with its campaign, was a major Balkan Entente Power[46] which contributed significantly to the Allied victory in the Balkans in November 1918, especially by helping France force Bulgaria's capitulation.[47] Serbia was classified as a minor Entente power.[48] Serbia's casualties accounted for 8% of the total Entente military deaths; 58% (243,600) soldiers of the Serbian army perished in the war.[49] The total number of casualties is placed around 700,000,[50] more than 16% of Serbia's prewar size,[43] and a majority (57%) of its overall male population.[51][52][53]
White Palace, royal residence

As the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, the territory of Syrmia united with Serbia on 24 November 1918, followed by Banat, Bačka and Baranja a day later, thereby bringing the entire Vojvodina into the Serb Kingdom. On 26 November 1918, the Podgorica Assembly deposed the House of Petrović-Njegoš, and uniting Montenegro with Serbia. On 1 December 1918, Serbian Prince Regent Alexander of Serbia proclaimed the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes under King Peter I of Serbia.

King Peter was succeeded by his son, Alexander, in August 1921. Serb centralists and Croat autonomists clashed in the parliament, and most governments were fragile and short-lived. Nikola Pašić, a conservative prime minister, headed or dominated most governments until his death. King Alexander changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia and changed the internal divisions from the 33 oblasts to nine new banovinas. The effect of Alexander's dictatorship was to further alienate the non-Serbs from the idea of unity.[54] Alexander was assassinated in Marseille, during an official visit in 1934 by Vlado Chernozemski, member of the IMRO. Alexander was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son Peter II and a regency council headed by his cousin, Prince Paul. Prime Minister Dragiša Cvetković, negotiated a solution to the concerns of the Croatian populace with Vladko Maček. In August 1939 the Cvetković–Maček Agreement established an autonomous Banate of Croatia.
World War II and the Second Yugoslavia
Main articles: Invasion of Yugoslavia, Yugoslav Front, and Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
See also: Axis occupation of Serbia and World War II persecution of Serbs
Damage caused by Nazi bombing in Belgrade, 1941

In 1941, in spite of Yugoslav attempts to remain neutral in the war, the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia. The territory of modern Serbia was divided between Hungary, Bulgaria, Independent Croatia and Italy (greater Albania and Montenegro), while the remaining part of Serbia was placed under German Military administration, with a Serbian puppet governments led by Milan Aćimović and Milan Nedić. The occupied territory was the scene of a civil war between royalist Chetniks commanded by Draža Mihailović and communist partisans commanded by Josip Broz Tito. Against these forces were arrayed Axis auxiliary units of the Serbian Volunteer Corps and the Serbian State Guard. Draginac and Loznica massacre of 2,950 villagers in Western Serbia in 1941 was the first large execution of civilians in occupied Serbia by Nazis, with Kragujevac massacre and Novi Sad Raid of Jews and Serbs by Hungarian fascists being the most notorious, with over 3,000 victims in each case.[55][56][57] After one year of occupation, around 16,000 Serbian Jews were murdered in the area, or around 90% of its pre-war Jewish population. Many concentration camps were established across the area. Banjica concentration camp was the largest concentration camp, with primary victims being Serbian Jews, Roma, and Serb political prisoners.[58]
Kragujevac massacre memorial

The Axis puppet state of the Independent State of Croatia committed large-scale persecution and genocide of Serbs, Jews, and Roma.[59] The estimate of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum indicates that between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia, Bosnia and northern Serbia were murdered during the Ustaše genocide campaign;[60] same figures are supported by the Jewish Virtual Library.[61] Official Yugoslav sources used to estimate more than 700,000 victims, mostly Serbs.[62] The Jasenovac memorial so far lists 82,085 names killed at the this concentration camp alone,[63] out of around 100,000 estimated victims (75% of whom were of Serbian origin).[64] Out of roughly 1 million casualties in all of Yugoslavia up until 1944,[65][66] around 250,000 were citizens of Serbia of different ethnicities.[67] The Republic of Užice was a short-lived liberated territory established by the Partisans and the first liberated territory in World War II Europe, organized as a military mini-state that existed in the autumn of 1941 in the west of occupied Serbia. By late 1944, the Belgrade Offensive swung in favour of the partisans in the civil war; the partisans subsequently gained control of Yugoslavia.[68] Following the Belgrade Offensive, the Syrmian Front was the last sequence of the World War Two in Serbia. Between 60,000 and 70,000 people were killed in Serbia during the communist takeover.[69]

The victory of the Communist Partisans resulted in the abolition of the monarchy and a subsequent orchestrated constitutional referendum. A single-party state was soon established in Yugoslavia by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. All opposition was repressed and people deemed to be promoting opposition to socialism or promoting separatism were imprisoned or executed for sedition. Serbia became a constituent republic within the SFRY known as the Socialist Republic of Serbia, and had a republic-branch of the federal communist party, the League of Communists of Serbia. Serbia's most powerful and influential politician in Tito-era Yugoslavia was Aleksandar Ranković, one of the "big four" Yugoslav leaders, alongside Tito, Edvard Kardelj, and Milovan Đilas.[70] Ranković was later removed from the office because of the disagreements regarding Kosovo’s nomenklatura and the unity of Serbia.[70] Ranković's dismissal was highly unpopular amongst Serbs.[71] Pro-decentralization reformers in Yugoslavia succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralization of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognizing a Yugoslav Muslim nationality.[71] As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale.[71] Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the University of Pristina as an Albanian language institution.[71] These changes created widespread fear amongst Serbs of being treated as second-class citizens.[72]
Breakup of Yugoslavia and political transition
Main articles: Breakup of Yugoslavia, Yugoslav Wars, Kosovo War, and Republic of Serbia (1992–2006)

In 1989, Slobodan Milošević rose to power in Serbia. Milošević promised reduction of powers for the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina, where his allies subsequently overtook the power, during the Anti-bureaucratic revolution.[73] This ignited tensions with the communist leadership of the other republics, and awoke nationalism across the country, that eventually resulted in the Breakup of Yugoslavia, with Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia declaring independence.[74] Serbia and Montenegro remained together as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).
Slobodan Milošević, President of Serbia from 1989–1997, President of FR Yugoslavia, 1997–2000.

Fueled by ethnic tensions, the Yugoslav Wars erupted, with the most severe conflicts taking place in Croatia and Bosnia, where ethnic Serb populations opposed independence from Yugoslavia. The FRY remained outside the conflicts, but provided logistic, military and financial support to Serb forces in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In response, the UN imposed sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in May 1992,[75] which led to political isolation and the collapse of the economy. Multiparty democracy was introduced in Serbia in 1990, officially dismantling the single-party system. Critics of Milošević claimed that the government continued to be authoritarian despite constitutional changes, as Milošević maintained strong political influence over the state media and security apparatus.[76][77] When the ruling SPS refused to accept its defeat in municipal elections in 1996, Serbians engaged in large protests against the government. Between 1998 and 1999, peace was broken again, when the situation in Kosovo worsened with continued clashes between Yugoslav security forces and the KLA. The confrontations led to the Kosovo War.[78]

In September 2000, opposition parties accused Milošević of electoral fraud. A campaign of civil resistance followed, led by the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS), a broad coalition of anti-Milošević parties. This culminated on 5 October when half a million people from all over the country congregated in Belgrade, compelling Milošević to concede defeat.[79] The fall of Milošević ended Yugoslavia's international isolation. Milošević was sent to the ICTY. The DOS announced that FR Yugoslavia would seek to join the European Union. In 2003, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was renamed Serbia and Montenegro; the EU opened negotiations with the country for the Stabilization and Association Agreement. Serbia's political climate has remained tense and in 2003, the prime minister Zoran Đinđić was assassinated as result of a plot originating from circles of organized crime and former security officials.

On 21 May 2006, Montenegro held a referendum to determine whether to end its union with Serbia. The results showed 55.4% of voters in favor of independence, which was just above the 55% required by the referendum. On 5 June 2006, the National Assembly of Serbia declared Serbia to be the legal successor to the former state union.[80] The province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. Serbia immediately condemned the declaration and continues to deny any statehood to Kosovo. The declaration has sparked varied responses from the international community, some welcoming it, while others condemn the unilateral move.[81] Status neutral talks between Serbia and Kosovo-Albanian authorities are held in Brussels, mediated by the EU.

In April 2008 Serbia was invited to join the Intensified Dialogue programme with NATO despite the diplomatic rift with the alliance over Kosovo.[82] Serbia officially applied for membership in the European Union on 22 December 2009,[83] and received candidate status on 1 March 2012[7][84] while the EU accession negotiations are expected to commence in January 2014.[85]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Serbia
Relief of Serbia

Located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km² (including Kosovo), which places it at 113th place in the world. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km (Albania 115 km, Bosnia and Herzegovina 302 km, Bulgaria 318 km, Croatia 241 km, Hungary 151 km, Macedonia 221 km, Montenegro 203 km and Romania 476 km).[86] All of Serbia's border with Albania, and parts of the borders with Macedonia, Montenegro, are under control of the UNMIK.

The Pannonian Plain covers the northern third of the country (mainly Vojvodina and Mačva) while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of central part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart, consists chiefly of hills traversed by the rivers. Mountains dominate the southern third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest following the flow of the rivers Drina and Ibar. Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in north–south direction in the eastern Serbia.[87] Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system. Elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 m (highest peak in Serbia, excluding Kosovo) to the lowest point of just 17 m near Danube river at Prahovo.[88]
Climate
Main article: Climate of Serbia

The climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. With mean January temperatures around 0 °C (32 °F), and mean July temperatures around 22 °C (72 °F), it can be classified as transitional. In the north, the climate is more continental, with cold winters, and hot, humid summers along with well distributed rainfall patterns. In the south, summers and autumns are drier, and winters are relatively cold, with heavy inland snowfall in the mountains. Differences in elevation, proximity to the Adriatic Sea and large river basins, as well as exposure to the winds account for climate variations.[89] Southern Serbia is subject to Mediterranean influences.[90] However, the Dinaric Alps and other mountain ranges contribute to the cooling of most of the warm air masses. Winters are quite harsh in the Pešter plateau, because of the mountains which encircle it.[91] One of the climatic features of Serbia is Košava, a cold and very squally southeastern wind which starts in the Carpathian Mountains and follows the Danube northwest through the Iron Gate where it gains a jet effect and continues to Belgrade and can spread as far south as Niš.[92]

The average annual air temperature for the period 1961–1990 for the area with an altitude of up to 300 m (984 ft) is 10.9 °C (51.6 °F). The areas with an altitude of 300 to 500 m (984 to 1,640 ft) have an average annual temperature of around 10.0 °C (50.0 °F), and over 1,000 m (3,281 ft) of altitude around 6.0 °C (42.8 °F).[93] The lowest recorded temperature in Serbia was −39.5 °C (−39.1 °F) on 13 January 1985, Karajukića Bunari in Pešter, and the highest was 44.9 °C or 112.8 °F, on 24 July 2007, recorded in Smederevska Palanka.[94]
Hydrology
Main articles: Rivers of Serbia and List of lakes in Serbia
Đerdap lake in eastern Serbia

Almost all of Serbia's rivers drain to the Black Sea, by way of the Danube river. The Danube, second largest European river, passes through Serbia with 21% of its overall length and represents country's largest source of fresh water. It is joined by its biggest tributaries, the Great Morava (longest river entirely in Serbia with 493 km of length), Sava and Tisza rivers.[95] One notable exception is the Pčinja which flows into the Aegean.

Due to the configuration of the terrain, natural lakes are sparse and small; most of them are located in Vojvodina, like the glacial lake Palić (covering 6 square kilometers, country's largest natural lake) or numerous oxbow lakes along river flows (like Zasavica and Carska Bara). However, there are numerous artificial lakes, mostly due to hydroelectric dams, the biggest being Đerdap on Danube with 163 square kilometers on the Serbian side (a total area of 253 square kilometers is shared with Romania) as well as the deepest (with maximum depth of 92 meters); Perućac on the Drina, and Vlasina. The largest waterfall, Jelovarnik, located in Kopaonik, is 71 meters high.[96]

Abundance of relatively unpolluted surface waters and numerous underground natural and mineral water sources of high water quality presents a chance for export and economy improvement; however, more extensive exploitation and production of bottled water began only recently.
River Km in Serbia Total length
(km) Number of countries
1 Danube 588 2783 9
2 Great Morava 493 493 1
3 Ibar 250 272 2
4 Drina 220 346 3
5 Sava 206 945 4
6 Timok 202 202 1
7 Tisa 168 966 4
8 Nišava 151 218 2
9 Tamiš 118 359 2
10 Begej 75 244 2
Environment
See also: List of protected natural resources in Serbia
Serbian Spruce tree endemic to Tara National Park
White-head Vulture survives around Uvac Gorge

With 29.1% of its territory covered by forest, Serbia is considered to be a middle-forested country. Forest coverage is, when compared on a global scale, similar to world forest coverage which accounts for 30%, but it is somewhat lower than the European average of 35%. The total forest area in Serbia is 2,252,000 hа (1,194,000 hа or 53% are state-owned, and 1,058,387 hа or 47% are privately owned) or 0.3 ha per inhabitant.[97] The most common trees are oak, beech, pines and firs.

Serbia is a country of rich ecosystem and species diversity – covering only 1.9% of the whole European territory Serbia is home to 39% of European vascular flora, 51% of European fish fauna, 40% of European reptile and amphibian fauna, 74% of European bird fauna, 67% European mammal fauna.[98] It's abundance of mountains and rivers make it an ideal environment for a variety of animals, many of which are protected including wolves, lynx, bears, foxes and stags. Mountain of Tara in western Serbia is one of the last regions in Europe where bears can still live in absolute freedom.[99] Serbia is also home to about 380 species of bird, including the imperial eagle, the great bustard, the corn crake and the Madagascar pochard. In Carska Bara, there are over 300 bird species on just a few square kilometers.[100] Uvac Gorge is considered one of the last habitats of White-head vulture in Europe.[101]

There are 377 protected areas of Serbia, encompassing 4,947 square kilometers or 6.4% of the country. The "Spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia" states that the total protected area should be increased to 12% by 2021.[98] Those protected areas include 5 national parks (Đerdap, Tara, Kopaonik, Fruška Gora and Šar Mountain), 15 nature parks, 15 "landscapes of outstanding features", 61 nature reserves, and 281 natural monuments.[96]

Air pollution is a significant problem in Bor area, due to work of large copper mining and smelting complex, and Pančevo where oil and petrochemical industry is based.[102] Some cities suffer from water supply problems, due to mismanagement and low investments in the past, as well as water pollution (like the pollution of the Ibar River from the Trepča zinc-lead combinate, affecting the city of Kraljevo, or the presence of natural arsenic in underground waters in Zrenjanin). Poor waste management has been identified as one of the most important environmental problems in Serbia and the recycling is a fledgling activity, with only 15% of its waste being turned back for reuse.[103] The 1999 NATO bombing caused serious damage to the environment, with several thousand tons of toxic chemicals stored in targeted factories and refineries released into the soil and water basins.
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Serbia and List of political parties in Serbia
House of the National Assembly in Belgrade

Serbia is a parliamentary republic. Government in Serbia is divided into legislative, executive and judiciary branches.

Serbia had one of the first modern constitutions in Europe, 1835 Constitution (known as "Sretenje Constitution"), which was at the time considered among the most progressive and liberal constitutions in the world. Since then it has adopted 10 different constitutions.[104] The current constitution was adopted on 8 November 2006 in the aftermath of Montenegro independence referendum which by consequence renewed the independece of Serbia itself.[105] The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding the Constitution.

The President of the Republic (Predsednik Republike) is the head of state, and elected by popular vote to a five-year term and is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of two terms. In addition to being the commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the consent of the parliament, and has some influence on foreign policy.[106] Tomislav Nikolić is the current president following the 2012 presidential election.[107] Seat of the presidency is Novi Dvor.

The Government (Vlada) is composed of the prime minister and cabinet ministers. The Government is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies. The current prime minister is Ivica Dačić of the Socialist Party of Serbia.[108]

The National Assembly (Narodna skupština) is a unicameral legislative body. The National Assembly has the power to enact laws, approve the budget, schedule presidential elections, select and dismiss the Prime Minister and other ministers, declare war, and ratify international treaties and agreements.[109] It is composed of 250 proportionally elected members who serve four-year terms. The largest political parties in Serbia are the centre-right Serbian Progressive Party, centre-left Democratic Party and leftist Socialist Party of Serbia.[110]

Serbia has a three-tiered judicial system, made up of the Supreme Court of Cassation as the court of the last resort, Courts of Appeal as the appellate instance, and Basic and High courts as the general jurisdictions at first instance. Courts of special jurisdictions are the Administrative Court, commercial courts (including the Commercial Court of Appeal at second instance) and misdemeanour courts (including High Misdemeanor Court at second instance).[111] The judiciary is overseen by the Ministry of Justice. Serbia has a typical civil law legal system.

Law enforcement is the responsibility of the Serbian Police, which is subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior. Serbian Police fields 26,527 uniformed officers.[112] National security and counterintelligence are the responsibility of the Security Information Agency (BIA).[113]
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Serbia

By the Law on Territorial Organization,[114] adopted by the National Assembly of Serbia on 29 December 2007.[115] the units of the territorial organization are: municipalities, cities and autonomous provinces.[114]

Serbia has two autonomous provinces: Vojvodina in the north (39 municipalities and 6 cities) and claims Kosovo and Metohija[114] in the south. The Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (or just Kosovo for short) has been transferred to the administration of UNMIK since June 1999. In February 2008, the Government of Kosovo declared its independence, a move recognized by 106 countries (including most of the European Union and the US) but not recognized by Serbia or the United Nations. The remaining area, termed Central Serbia, never had its own regional authority.

Serbia (excluding Kosovo) is organized into 25 districts (okruzi). Belgrade constitutes a district of its own.[116] They are regional centers of state authority, but have no powers of their own; they present purely administrative divisions. Belgrade is a separate territorial unit established by the Constitution and law,[117]

Further, there are 138 municipalities (opštine) and 23 cities (gradovi) (excluding Kosovo), which form the basic units of local self-government.[114]

Since 1999, the territory of Kosovo has officially been administered by UNMIK as per UNSC Resolution 1244 of the United Nations. The Provisional Institutions of Self-Government (PISG), has an assembly and a president. On 17 February 2008, representatives of the people of Kosovo, acting outside the UNMIK's PISG framework (not representing the Assembly of Kosovo or any other of these institutions),[118] declared that Kosovo is independent from Serbia. Serbia does not recognize the declaration and considers the act illegal and illegitimate.[119]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Serbia
See also: Accession of Serbia to the European Union and Political status of Kosovo
Serbian embassy in Prague, Czech Republic

Serbia has established diplomatic relations with 182 UN member states, the Holy See, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, and the European Union.[120] Foreign relations are conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Serbia has a network of 65 embassies and 23 consulates internationally.[121] There are 65 foreign embassies, 5 consulates and 4 liaison offices in Serbia.[122]

Serbian foreign policy is focused on achieving the strategic goal of becoming a member state of the European Union (EU). Serbia started the process of joining the EU by signing of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement on 29 April 2008 and officially applied for membership in the European Union on 22 December 2009.[123] It received a full candidate status on 1 March 2012 and is set to start accession talks in January 2014.[8][124]

The province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. The declaration of independence has sparked varied responses from the international community, some welcoming it, while others condemn the unilateral move.[81] Serbia has consistently recalled its ambassadors from states which have recognized Kosovo, in protest.[125]
Military
Main articles: Serbian Armed Forces and Military history of Serbia

The Serbian Armed Forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defence, and are composed of the Army and the Air Force. Although a landlocked country, Serbia operates a river flotilla which patrols on the Danube, Sava, and Tisza rivers. The Serbian Chief of the General Staff reports to the Defence Minister. The Chief of Staff is appointed by the President, who is the Commander-in-chief.[106] As of 2012, Serbia defence budget amounts to $612 million or an estimated 1.6% of the country's GDP.[126]
A Serbian Air Force MiG-29 in mid-takeoff

Traditionally relying on a large number of conscripts, Serbian Armed Forces went through a period of downsizing, restructuring and professionalisation. Conscription was abolished on 1 January 2011.[127] Serbian Armed Forces have 28,000 active troops,[128] supplemented by the "active reserve" which numbers 20,000 members and "passive reserve" with about 170,000.[129][130]

Serbia participates in the NATO Partnership for Peace program, but has shown no intention of joining NATO, due to significant popular rejection, largely derived from the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999.[131] The country also signed the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe. The Serbian Armed Forces take part in several multinational peacekeeping missions, including deployments in Lebanon, Cyprus, Ivory Coast, and Liberia.[132]

Serbia is a large producer and exporter of military equipment in the region. Defence exports totaled around $250 million in 2011.[126] Serbia exports across the world, notably to the Middle East, Africa, Southeast Asia, and North America.[133] The defence industry has seen significant growth over the years and it continues to grow on a yearly basis.[134][135]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Serbia and Demographic history of Serbia
Ethnic composition (2011)

Serbs
 
83.3%
Hungarians
 
3.5%
Roma
 
2.0%
Bosniaks
 
2.0%
Croats
 
0.8%
Slovaks
 
0.7%
Other
 
5.3%
Unspecified
 
2.2%

As of 2011 census, Serbia (excluding Kosovo) has a total population of 7,186,862 and the overall population density is medium as it stands at 92.8 inhabitants per square kilometer.[136] The census was not conducted in Kosovo which held its own census that numbered their total population at 1,739,825,[137] excluding Serb-inhabited North Kosovo, as Serbs from that area (about 50,000) boycotted the census.

Serbia is in an acute demographic crisis since the beginning of the 1990s, as death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate. It has one of the most negative population growth rates in the world, ranking 225th out of 233 countries and territories overall.[138] The total fertility rate of 1.44 children per mother, is one of the lowest in the world.[139] Serbia has a comparatively old overall population (among the 10 oldest in the world), with the average age of 42.2 years.[140] The life expectancy in Serbia at birth is 73.9 years.[141] A fifth of all households consist of only one person and just one-fourth of 4 and more persons.[142]

During the 1990s, Serbia used to have the largest refugee population in Europe.[143] Refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Serbia formed between 7% and 7.5% of its population – about half a million refugees sought refuge in the country following the series of Yugoslav wars, mainly from Croatia (and to a lesser extent from Bosnia and Herzegovina) and the IDPs from Kosovo.[144] Meanwhile, it is estimated that 300,000 people left Serbia during the 1990s, 20% of which had a higher education.[145][146]

Serbs with 5,988,150 are the largest ethnic group in Serbia, representing 83.3% of the total population (excluding Kosovo). With a population of 253,899, Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority in Serbia, concentrated predominately in northern Vojvodina and representing 3.5% of the country's population (13% in Vojvodina). Roma population stands at 147,604 according to the 2011 census but unofficial estimates place their actual number between 400,000 and 500,000.[147] Bosniaks with 145,278 are third largest ethnic minority mainly inhabiting Raška region in southwestern part of the country. Other minority groups include Croats, Slovaks, Albanians, Montenegrins, Vlachs, Romanians, Macedonians and Bulgarians. The Chinese, estimated at about 15,000, are the only significant immigrant minority.[148][149]

Majority of population, or 59.7%, reside in urban areas and some 16.1% in Belgrade alone.[150] Serbia has only one city with more than a million inhabitants and four with more than 100,000 inhabitants.
Largest cities or towns of Serbia


Belgrade
Belgrade
Novi Sad
Novi Sad
Niš
Niš
Rank City name District Urban population Municipal population

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Kragujevac
Kragujevac
Subotica
Subotica
Zrenjanin
Zrenjanin
1 Belgrade City of Belgrade 1,233,796 1,659,440
2 Novi Sad South Bačka District 277,522 341,625
3 Niš Nišava District 187,544 260,237
4 Kragujevac Šumadija District 150,835 179,417
5 Subotica North Bačka District 105,681 141,554
6 Zrenjanin Central Banat District 76,511 123,362
7 Pančevo South Banat District 76,203 123,414
8 Čačak Moravica District 73,331 115,337
9 Novi Pazar Raška District 66,527 100,410
10 Kraljevo Raška District 64,175 125,488
11 Smederevo Podunavlje District 64,175 108,209
12 Leskovac Jablanica District 60,288 144,206
13 Valjevo Kolubara District 58,932 90,301
14 Kruševac Rasina District 58,745 128,752
15 Vranje Pčinja District 55,138 82,782
16 Šabac Mačva District 53,919 115,884
17 Užice Zlatibor District 52,646 78,018
18 Sombor West Bačka District 47,623 85,569
19 Požarevac Braničevo District 44,183 74,070
20 Pirot Pirot District 38,785 57,911
Census 2011
Religion
Main articles: Religion in Serbia and Serbian Orthodox Church
The Cathedral of Saint Sava in Belgrade, the largest Orthodox and among ten largest Christian churches in the world

The Constitution of Serbia defines it as a secular state with guaranteed religious freedom. Serbia is one of religiously diverse European countries, with an Eastern Orthodox majority, and a Catholic and Islamic minority, among other smaller confessions.[151]

Orthodox Christians with 6,079,396 comprise 84.5% of country's population. The Serbian Orthodox Church is the largest and traditional church of the country, adherents of which are overwhelmingly Serbs. Other Orthodox Christian communities in Serbia include Montenegrins, Romanians, Vlachs, Macedonians and Bulgarians.

There are 356,957 Roman Catholics in Serbia, roughly 5% of the population, mostly in Vojvodina (especially its northern part) which is home to minority ethnic groups such as Hungarians, Croats, Bunjevci, as well as to some Slovaks and Czechs.[151] Protestantism accounts for about 1% of the country's population, chiefly among Slovaks in Vojvodina as well as among Reformist Hungarians.

Muslims, with 222,282 or 3% of population, form third largest religious group. Islam has a strong historic following in the southern regions of Serbia, primarily in southern Raška. Bosniaks are the largest Islamic community in Serbia; estimates are that some third of country's Roma people are Muslim.

There are only 578 Jews by faith in Serbia.[152] Jews from Spain settled in Serbia after following the expulsion from Spain in late 15th century. The community has flourished and reached peak with 33,000 before World War II (of which almost 90% were living in Belgrade and Vojvodina), however later on, the wars that ravaged the region resulted in a great part of the Jewish Serbian population emigrating from the country.[153] Today, the Belgrade Synagogue is the only functioning synagogue, saved by the local population during World War II from destruction at the hands of the Nazis. Other synagogues, such as Subotica Synagogue, which used to be fourth largest synagogue building in Europe, and Novi Sad Synagogue, have been converted into museums and art spaces.

Atheists numbered 80,053 or 1.1% of population and additional 4,070 are Agnostics.[152]
Language
Main articles: Languages of Serbia and Serbian language

The official language is Serbian, member of the South Slavic group of languages, and is native to 88% of the population.[152] Serbian is the only European language with active digraphia, using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. Serbian Cyrillic was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, who created the alphabet on phonemic principles, the Cyrillic itself has its origins in Cyril and Methodius' transformation of the Greek script in the 9th century.

Recognized minority languages are: Hungarian, Slovak, Albanian, Romanian, Bulgarian and Rusyn as well as Bosnian and Croatian which are completely mutual intelligible with Serbian. All these languages are in official use in municipalities or cities where more than a 15% of population consists of national minority.[154] In Vojvodina, provincial administration uses, besides Serbian, five other languages (Hungarian, Slovak, Croatian, Romanian and Rusyn).
Economy
Main article: Economy of Serbia
Graphical depiction of Serbia's product exports

Serbia has an emerging market economy in upper-middle income range.[155] According to the IMF, Serbian nominal GDP in 2013 is officially estimated at $43.7 billion or $6,017 per capita while purchasing power parity GDP was $80.467 billion or $11,085 per capita.[3] The economy is dominated by services which accounts for 63.8% of GDP, followed by industry with 23.5% of GDP, and agriculture at 12.7% of GDP.[156] The official currency of Serbia is Serbian dinar (ISO code: RSD), and the central bank is National Bank of Serbia. The Belgrade Stock Exchange is the only stock exchange in the country, with market capitalization of $8.9 billion (as of Q4 2013) and BELEX 15 as the main index representing the 15 most liquid stocks.[157]

The economy has been affected by the global economic crisis. After eight years of strong economic growth (average of 4.45% per year), Serbia entered the recession in 2009 with negative growth of −3% and again in 2012 with −1.7%.[158] As the government was fighting effects of crisis the public debt has doubled in 4 years: from pre-crisis level of 29.2% to 61.5% of GDP.[159]

Labor force is 2.96 million, of whom 58.6% per cent are employed in services sector, 21.9% are employed in the agriculture and 19.5% are employed in industry.[160] The average monthly net salary in August 2013 was 44,770 dinars (US$ 528). The unemployment remains an acute problem, with rate of 24.1% as of April 2013.[161]
100 dinar banknote

Since 2000, Serbia has attracted over $25 billion US$ in foreign direct investment (FDI).[162] Blue-chip corporations making investments in Serbia include: FIAT, Siemens, Bosch, Philip Morris, Michelin, Coca-Cola, Carlsberg and others.[163] In the energy sector, Russian energy giants, Gazprom and Lukoil have made large investments.[164]

Serbia has an unfavorable trade balance: imports exceed exports by a third. Serbia's exports, however, recorded a steady growth in 2012 and 2013.[165] The country has free trade agreements with the EFTA and CEFTA, a preferential trade regime with the European Union, a Generalized System of Preferences with the United States, and individual free trade agreements with Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Turkey.[166]
Agriculture
Main article: Agriculture in Serbia
Plum, fruit-symbol of the country; Serbia is world's second largest producer of plums

Serbia has very favourable natural conditions (land and climate) for varied agricultural production. It has 5,056,000 ha of agricultural land (0.7 ha per capita), out of which 3,294,000 ha is arable land (0.45 ha per capita).[167] In 2012, Serbia exported agricultural and food products worth $2.5 billion, and the export-import ratio was about 190%.[168] Agricultural exports constitute one-fifth of all Serbia’s sales on the world market. Serbia is one of the largest provider of frozen fruit to the EU (largest to the French market, and 2nd largest to the German market).[169] Agricultural production is most prominent in Vojvodina on the fertile Pannonian Plain. Other agricultural regions include Mačva, Pomoravlje, Tamnava, Rasina, and Jablanica.[170]

In the structure of the agricultural production 70% is from the crop field production, and 30% is from the livestock production.[170] Serbia is world's second largest producer of plums (582,485 tons; second to China), third largest of raspberries (89,602 tons, third to Russia and Poland), it is also significant producer of maize (6.48 million tons, ranked 32nd in the world) and wheat (2.07 million tpns, ranked 35th in the world).[96][171] Other important agricultural products are: sunflower, sugar beet, soya bean, potato, apple, pork meat, beef, poultry meat and dairy.

There are 56,000 ha of vineyards in Serbia, producing about 230 million litres of wine annually.[96][167] Most famous viticulture regions are: Vršac area, Župa, Fruška Gora, Topola area.
Industry
See also: Automotive industry in Serbia
The Fiat 500L is manufactured by the Italian carmaker FIAT in Kragujevac

The industry is the economy sector which was hardest hit by the UN sanctions and trade embargo and NATO bombing during the 1990s and transition to market economy during the 2000s.[172] The industrial output saw dramatic downsizing: in 2013 it is expected to be only a half of that of 1989.[173] Main industrial sectors include: automotive, mining, non-ferrous metals, food-processing, electronics, pharmaceuticals, clothes.

Automotive industry (with FIAT as a forebearer) is dominated by cluster located in Kragujevac and its vicinity, and contributes to country's exports with about $2 billion.[174] Serbia's mining industry is comparatively strong: country is world's 18th largest producer of coal (7th in the Europe) extracted from large deposits in Kolubara and Kostolac basins; it is also world's 23rd largest (3rd in Europe) producer of copper which is extracted by RTB Bor, a large domestic copper mining company; significant gold extraction is developed around Majdanpek. Food industry is well known both regionally and internationally and is one of the strong points of the economy.[175] Some of the international brand-names established production in Serbia: PepsiCo and Nestle in food-processing sector; Coca-Cola (Belgrade), Heineken (Novi Sad) and Carlsberg (Bačka Palanka) in beverage industry; Nordzucker in sugar industry.[169] Clothing and textile industry has seen a surge in recent years with significant greenfeild investments by foreign companies: Benneton in Niš, Geox in Vranje, Calzedonia in Sombor, Falke in Leskovac and others. Serbia's electronics industry had its peak in the 1980s and the industry today is only a third of what it was back then, but has witnessed a something of revival in last decade with investments of companies such as Siemens (wind turbines) in Subotica, Panasonic (lighting devices) in Svilajnac, and Gorenje (electrical home appliances) in Valjevo.[176] The pharmaceutical industry in Serbia comprises 20 manufacturers of generic drugs, of which German Stada in Vršac and domestic Galenika based in Belgrade, account for 80% of production volume. Domestic production meets over 60% of the local demand.[177]
Energy
Main article: Energy in Serbia

Energy sector is one of the largest and most important sectors to the country's economy. Serbia is net exporter of electricity and importer of key fuels (such as oil and gas).

Serbia has abundance of one natural fuel (coal) and relatively significant but not sufficient of the others (oil and gas). Serbia's proven reserves of 5.5 billion tons of coal lignite are 4th largest in the world (second in Europe, after Germany).[178][179] Coal is found in two large deposits: Kolubara (4 billion tons of reserves) and Kostolac (1.5 billion tons).[178] Despite being small on a world scale, Serbia's oil and gas resources (77.4 million tons of oil equivalent and 48.1 billion cubic meters, respectively) have a certain regional importance since they are largest in the region of former Yugoslavia as well as the Balkans (excluding Romania).[180] Almost 90% of the discovered oil and gas are to be found in Banat and those oil and gas fields are by size among the largest in the Pannonian basin but the average on a European scale.[181]
NIS headquarters in Novi Sad

The production of electricity in 2012 in Serbia was 36.06 billion kilowatt-hours (KWh), while the final electricity consumption amounted to 35.5 billion kilowatt-hours (KWh).[182] Most of the electricity produced comes from thermal-power plants (72.7% of all electricity) and to a lesser degree from hydroelectric-power plants (27.3%).[183] There are 6 lignite-operated thermal-power plants with an installed power of 3,936 MW; largest of which are 1,502 MW-Nikola Tesla 1 and 1,160 MW-Nikola Tesla 2, both in Obrenovac.[184] Total installed power of 9 hydroelectric-power plants is 2,831 MW, largest of which is Đerdap 1 with capacity of 1,026 MW.[185] In addition to this, there are mazute and gas-operated thermal-power plants with an installed power of 353 MW.[186] The entire production of electricity is concentrated in Elektroprivreda Srbije (EPS), public electric-utility power company.

The current oil production in Serbia amounts to over 1.1 million tons of oil equivalent[187] and satisfies some 43% of country's needs while the rest is imported.[188] National petrol company, Naftna Industrija Srbije (NIS), was acquired in 2008 by Gazprom Neft. The company has completed $700 million modernisation of oil-refinery in Pančevo (capacity of 4.8 million tons) and is currently in the midst of converting oil refinery in Novi Sad into lubricants-only refinery. It also operates network of 334 filling stations in Serbia (74% of domestic market) and additional 36 stations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 31 in Bulgaria, and 28 in Romania.[189][190] There are 155 kilometers of crude oil pipelines connecting Pančevo and Novi Sad refineries as a part of trans-national Adria oil pipeline.[191]

Serbia is heavily dependent on foreign sources of natural gas, with only 17% coming from domestic production (totalling 491 million cubic meters in 2012) and the rest is imported, mainly from Russia (via gas pipelines that run through Ukraine and Hungary).[188] Srbijagas, public gas company, operates the natural gas transportation system which comprise 3,177 kilometers of trunk and regional natural gas pipelines and a 450 million cubic meter underground gas storage facility at Banatski Dvor.[192] Major European transit gas pipeline, South Stream pipeline, will pass through Serbia in length of 422 kilometers and will have capacity of 40.5 billion cubic meters.[193] Start of the construction of Serbian portion of the pipeline is scheduled for the end of 2013 and will be financed with $2.6 billion by the Russian energy giant Gazprom.[194]
Transport
Main article: Transport in Serbia
Air Serbia's Airbus A319

Serbia has a strategic transportation location since country's backbone, Morava valley, represents by far the easiest route of land travel from continental Europe to Asia Minor and the Near East.
State Road 3 motorway near Dobanovci, west of Belgrade

Serbian road network carries the bulk of traffic in the country. Total length of roads is 40,845 km, of which 1,372 km are "class 1a-state roads" (i.e. major national roads, including some 634 km of motorways); 4,153 km are "class 1b-state roads"; 11,540 km are "class 2-state roads" (regional roads) and 23,780 km are "municipal roads" (local roads).[195][196] The road network, except for the most of class 1a roads, are of comparatively lower quality to the Western European standards because of lack of financial resources for their maintenance in the last 20 years. There are currently 241 kilometers of motorways (autoputevi) under construction which are all due to be completed by 2016: 66 km-long section of the State Road 1 (from south of Leskovac to Bujanovac), 102 km-long segment of State Road 2 (between Obrenovac and Čačak), and 83 kilometers on the State Road 5 (east of Niš to the Bulgarian border).[197][198] Work on the construction of the motorways on State Road 4 (110 km section between intersection with SR1 northeast of Kruševac and Požega on the west) as well as the remaining part of State Road 2 (52 km-long sections Belgrade-Obrenovac and Čačak-Požega) is set to commence in 2014 and be completed by 2016 and 2017, respectively.[199] Coach transport is very extensive: almost every place in the country is connected by bus, from largest cities to the villages; in addition there are international routes (mainly to countries of Western Europe with large Serb diaspora). Routes, both domestic and international, are served by more than 100 bus companies, biggest of which are Lasta and Niš-Ekspres. As of 2011, there are 1,677,510 registered passenger cars or 1 passenger car per 4.3 inhabitants.[96]

Serbia has 3,819 kilometers of rail tracks, of which 1,279 are electrified and 283 kilometers are double-track railroad.[96] The major rail hub is Belgrade (and to a lesser degree Niš), while the most imprtant railroads include: Belgrade-Bar (Montenegro), Belgrade-Šid-Zagreb (Croatia)/Belgrade-Niš-Sofia (Bulgaria) (part of Pan-European Corridor X), Belgrade-Subotica-Budapest (Hungary) and Niš-Thessaloniki (Greece). Although still a major mode of freight transportation, railroads face increasing problems with the maintenance of the infrastructure and lowering speeds. All rail services are operated by public rail company, Serbian Railways.[200]

There are only two cities in Serbia (excluding Kosovo) served by international airports with regular passenger traffic: Belgrade and Niš. Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport served 3.36 million passengers in 2012, and is a hub of flagship carrier Air Serbia.[201]
205 meters-high Avala telecommunication tower

Serbia has a developed inland water transport since there are 1,716 kilometers of navigable inland waterways (1,043 km of navigable rivers and 673 km of navigable canals), which are almost all located in northern third of the country.[96] The most important inland waterway is the Danube (part of Pan-European Corridor VII). Other navigable rivers include Sava, Tisza, Begej and Timiş River, all of which connect Serbia with Northern and Western Europe through the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal and North Sea route, to Eastern Europe via the Tisza, Begej and Danube Black Sea routes, and to Southern Europe via the Sava river. More than 2.1 million tons of cargo were transported on Serbian rivers and canals in 2011 while the largest river ports are: Belgrade, Novi Sad, Pančevo, Smederevo, Prahovo and Šabac.[96][202]
Telecommunications
Main article: Telecommunications in Serbia

Fixed telephone lines have 89% of households in Serbia, and with about 9.8 million users the number of cellphones surpasses the number of total population of Serbia itself by 35%. The largest cellphone provider is Telekom Srbija with 5.65 million subscribers, followed by Telenor with 3.1 million users and Vip mobile with just over 1 million.[203] Computers have 59.9% of households and 55.8% have internet connection (43.4% have a broadband connection).[204] Some 58% of households have cable TV, which is one of the highest rates in Europe.[205] Digital television transition is set to be completed by the end of 2014.[206]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Serbia

Serbia is not a mass-tourism destination but nevertheless has diverse range of touristic products.[207] In 2012, total of 2,079,643 tourists were recorded in accommodations, of which 809,967 were foreign, while the average length of a tourist stay was 3.6 days (2.3 days for foreign tourists).[208][209] Foreign exchange earnings for the same year were estimated at around $1 billion.[210] Tourism is mainly focused on the mountains and spas of the country, which are mostly visited by domestic tourists, as well as Belgrade which is preferred choice of foreign tourists.[211] The most famous mountain resorts are Kopaonik, Stara Planina, and Zlatibor. There are also many spas in Serbia, the biggest of which is Vrnjačka Banja, Soko Banja, and Banja Koviljača. City-break and conference tourism is developed in Belgrade (which was visited by 460,424 foreign tourists in 2012, more than a half of all international visits to the country) and to a lesser degree Novi Sad. Other touristic products that Serbia offer are natural wonders like Đavolja varoš,[212] Christian pilgrimage to the many Orthodox monasteries across the country[213] and the river cruising along the Danube. There are several internationally popular music festivals held in Serbia, such as EXIT (with 25–30,000 foreign visitors coming from 60 different countries) and the Guča trumpet festival.[214]

Kopaonik winter resort

Vrnjačka Banja spa resort

Đavolja Varoš natural wonder

Zlatibor

Golubac Fortress

EXIT festival

Education and science
Main article: Education in Serbia
The University of Belgrade Library

According to 2011 census, literacy in Serbia stands at 98% of population while computer literacy is at 49% (complete computer literacy is at 34.2%).[215] Same census showed the following levels of education: 16.2% of inhabitants have higher education (10.6% have bachelors or masters degrees, 5.6% have an associates degree), 49% have a secondary education, 20.7% have an elementary education, and 13.7% have not completed elementary education.[216]

Education in Serbia is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Science. Education starts in either preschools or elementary schools. Children enroll in elementary schools at the age of seven. Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school. Students have the opportunity to attend gymnasiums and vocational schools for another four years, or to enroll in vocational training for 2 to 3 years. Following the completion of gymnasiums or vocational schools, students have the opportunity to attend university.[217] Elementary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Serbia, where classes are held in Hungarian, Slovak, Albanian, Romanian, Rusyn, Bulgarian as well as Bosnian and Croatian languages.
Dositej Obradović, the founder of the University of Belgrade and Serbia's first Minister of Education[218]

There are 17 universities in Serbia (eight public universities with a total number of 85 faculties and nine private universities with 51 faculties).[219] In 2010/2011 academic year, 181,362 students attended 17 universities (148,248 at public universities and some 33,114 at private universities) while 47,169 attended 81 "higher schools".[96] Public universities in Serbia are: the University of Belgrade (oldest, founded in 1808, and largest university with 89,827 undergraduates and graduates[220]), University of Novi Sad (founded in 1960 and with student body of 47,826[221]), University of Niš (founded in 1965; 27,000 students), University of Kragujevac (founded in 1976; 14,000 students), University of Pristina – Kos. Mitrovica, Public University of Novi Pazar as well as two specialist universities – University of Arts and University of Defence. Largest private universities include Megatrend University and Singidunum University, both in Belgrade, and Educons University in Novi Sad. Public universities tend to be of a better quality and therefore more renowned than private ones. Thе University of Belgrade (placed in 301–400 bracket on 2013 Shanghai Ranking of World Universities, being best-placed university in Southeast Europe after those in Athens and Thessaloniki) and University of Novi Sad are generally considered as the best institutions of higher learning in the country.[222]
Nikola Tesla sits in front of the spiral coil of his high-frequency transformer

Serbia spent 0.64% of GDP on scientific research in 2012, which is one of the lowest R&D budgets in Europe.[223] Serbia has a long history of excellence in maths and computer sciences which has created a strong pool of engineering talent, although economic sanctions during the 1990s and chronic underinvestment in research forced many scientific professionals to leave the country.[224] Nevertheless, there are several areas in which Serbia still excels such as growing information technology sector, which includes software development as well as outsourcing. It generated $200 million in exports in 2011, both from international investors and a significant number of dynamic homegrown enterprises.[225] In 2005 the global technology giant, Microsoft, founded the Microsoft Development Center, only its fourth such centre in the world. Among the scientific institutes operating in Serbia, the largest are the Mihajlo Pupin Institute and Vinča Nuclear Institute, both in Belgrade. The Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts is a learned society promoting science and arts from its inception in 1841.[226] Country has a rich tradition of contributing to the field of science and technology with many renowned scientists.

Nikola Tesla, electrical engineer and inventor, best known for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC) electricity supply system including the AC induction motor.[227] The tesla is the SI derived unit of magnetic flux density and was named after Tesla.[228]
Mihajlo Pupin discovered a means of greatly extending the range of long-distance telephone communication by placing loading coils of wire (known as Pupin coils) at predetermined intervals along the transmitting wire (known as "pupinization").[229]
Milutin Milanković is known for his theory of ice ages, suggesting a relationship between the Earth's long-term climate changes and periodic changes in its orbit, now known as Milankovitch cycles.
Mihailo Petrović is known for having contributed significantly to differential equations and phenomenology, as well as inventing one of the first prototypes of an analog computer.
Miodrag Radulovacki is best known for postulating the Adenosine Sleep Theory in 1984.[230]

Culture
Main articles: Serbian culture and Cultural Heritage of Serbia
White Angel fresco, 1230
Marble Studenica monastery built in 1196, UNESCO

For centuries straddling the boundaries between East and West, Serbia had been divided among the Eastern and Western halves of the Roman Empire; then between the Kingdom of Hungary, Frankish Kingdom and Byzantium; and then between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire, as well as Venice in the south. These overlapping influences have resulted in cultural varieties throughout Serbia; its north leans to the profile of Central Europe, while the south is characteristic of the wider Balkans and even the Mediterranean. The Byzantine influence on Serbia was profound, firstly through the introduction of Eastern Christianity (Orthodoxy) in the Early Middle Ages. The Serbian Orthodox Church has had an enduring status in Serbia, with the many Serbian monasteries constituting the most valuable cultural monuments left from Serbia in the Middle Ages.

Serbia has four cultural monuments inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage: the early medieval capital Stari Ras and the 13th-century monastery Sopoćani; the 12th-century Studenica monastery; the Roman complex of Gamzigrad–Felix Romuliana; and finally the endangered Medieval Monuments in Kosovo (comprising the monasteries of Visoki Dečani, Our Lady of Ljeviš, Gračanica and Patriarchate of Peć). There are two literary monuments on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme: the 12th-century Miroslav Gospel, and scientist Nikola Tesla's valuable archive.

The Ministry of Culture and Information is tasked with preserving the nation's cultural heritage and overseeing its development. Further activities supporting development of culture are undertaken at local government level.
Art
Main article: Serbian art
The National Museum (top) and Museum of Contemporary Art (bottom), house national collections of classical and contemporary art
Kosovo Maiden (1919) by Uroš Predić, based on Serbian epic poetry, which was praised by many famous persons such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Jacob Grimm, Hans Christian Andersen and Carl Spitteler.[231]

Traces of Roman and early Byzantine Empire architectural heritage are found in many royal cities and palaces in Serbia, like Sirmium, Gamzigrad-Felix Romuliana and Justiniana Prima.

Serbian monasteries, with their fresco and icon paintings, are pinnacle of Serbian medieval art. At the beginning, they were under the influence of Byzantine Art which was particularly felt after the fall of Constantinople in 1204, when many Byzantine artists fled to Serbia. The most noted of these monasteries is Studenica (built around 1190). It was a model for later monasteries, like the Mileševa, Sopoćani, Žiča, Gračanica and Visoki Dečani. The most famous Serbian medieval fresco is the Mironosnice na Grobu (or the "White Angel") from the Mileševa monastery.[232] In the end of 14th and the 15th centuries, autochotonous architectural style known as Morava style evolved in area around Morava Valley. A characteristic of this style was the wealthy decoration of the frontal church walls. Examples of this include Manasija, Ravanica and Kalenić monasteries. Country is dotted with many well-preserved medieval fortifications and castles such as Smederevo Fortress (largest lowland fortress in Europe), Golubac, Maglič, and Ram.

During the time of Turkish occupation, Serbian art was virtually non-existent, with the exception of several Serbian artists who lived in the lands ruled by the Habsburg Monarchy. Traditional Serbian art showed some Baroque influences at the end of the 18th century as shown in the works of Nikola Nešković, Teodor Kračun, Zaharije Orfelin and Jakov Orfelin.[233]

Serbian painting showed the influence of Biedermeier, Neoclassicism and Romanticism during the 19th century. The most important Serbian painters of the first half of 20th century were Paja Jovanović and Uroš Predić of Realism, Cubist Sava Šumanović, Milena Pavlović-Barili and Nadežda Petrović of Impressionism, Expressionist Milan Konjović. Noted painters of the second half of 20th century include Marko Čelebonović, Petar Lubarda, Milo Milunović, and Vladimir Veličković.[234]

There are around 100 art museums in Serbia, of which the most prominent is the National Museum, founded in 1844; it houses one of the largest art collections in the Balkans with more than 400,000 exhibits, over 5,600 paintings and 8,400 drawings and prints, including many foreign masterpiece collections. Other art museums of note are Museum of Contemporary Art in Belgrade and Museum of Vojvodina in Novi Sad.
Literature
Main article: Serbian literature
Miroslav Gospels, one of the oldest surviving documents written in Serbian Church Slavonic, 1186

The beginning of Serbian literacy dates back to the activity of the brothers Cyril and Methodius in the Balkans. Monuments of Serbian literacy from the early 11th century can be found, written in Glagolitic. Starting in the 12th century, books were written in Cyrillic. From this epoch, the oldest Serbian Cyrillic book editorial are the Miroslav Gospels. The Miroslav Gospels are considered to be the oldest book of Serbian medieval history.

Notable medieval authors include Saint Sava, Nun Jefimija, Stefan Lazarević, Constantine of Kostenets and others.[235] Baroque trends in Serbian literature emerged in the late 17th century. Notable Baroque-influenced authors were Gavril Stefanović Venclović, Jovan Rajić, Zaharije Orfelin, Andrija Zmajević and others.[236] Dositej Obradović was the most prominent figure of the Age of Enlightenment, while the most notable Classicist writer was Jovan Sterija Popović, although his works also contained elements of Romanticism.[237] In the era of national revival, in the first half of the 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić collected Serbian folk literature, and reformed the Serbian language and spelling.[238] The first half of the 19th century was dominated by Romanticism, with Đura Jakšić, Jovan Jovanović Zmaj, Laza Kostić, and Branko Radičević being the most notable representatives, while the second half of the century was marked by Realist writers such as Milovan Glišić, Laza Lazarević, Simo Matavulj, Stevan Sremac, Branislav Nušić, Radoje Domanović and Borisav Stanković. The 20th century was dominated by the prose writers Ivo Andrić (the 1961 winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature), Miloš Crnjanski, Meša Selimović, Borislav Pekić, Danilo Kiš, Dobrica Ćosić, Isidora Sekulić, Branko Ćopić and Aleksandar Tišma.[239][240] There were also many valuable poetic achievements, as seen by the writings of Milan Rakić, Jovan Dučić, Desanka Maksimović, Vladislav Petković Dis, Branko Miljković, Vasko Popa, Oskar Davičo, and others.[241] In the last decade of the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st century, the most popular Serbian writers include Milorad Pavić, David Albahari, Goran Petrović, Svetlana Velmar-Janković, Svetislav Basara and Zoran Živković.

There are 551 public libraries in Serbia (excluding Kosovo), biggest of which are two national libraries: National Library of Serbia in Belgrade with funds of about 5 million volumes, and Matica Srpska (oldest Serbian cultural institution, founded in 1826) in Novi Sad with nearly 3.5 million volumes.[242][243] In 2010, there were 10,989 books and brochures published.[96] The book publishing market is dominated by several major publishers such as Laguna and Vulkan (both of which operate their own bookstore chains) and the industry's centerpiece event, annual Belgrade Book Fair, is the most visited cultural event in Serbia with 158,128 visitors in 2013.[244] Highlight of the literary scene is awarding of NIN Prize, most prestigious literary award given every January since 1954 for the best newly published novel in Serbian language (during times of Yugoslavia, in Serbo-Croatian language).[245]
Music
Main article: Music of Serbia

Composer and musicologist Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac is considered founder of modern Serbian music.[246][247] The Serbian composers of the first generation Petar Konjović, Stevan Hristić, and Miloje Milojević maintained the national expression and modernized the romanticism into the direction of impressionism. Other famous classical Serbian composers include Isidor Bajić, Stanislav Binički and Josif Marinković.[248] There are three opera houses in Serbia: Opera of the National Theatre and Madlenianum Opera, both in Belgrade, and Opera of the Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad. Four symphonic orchestra operate in the country: Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra, Niš Symphony Orchestra, Symphonic Orchestra of Radio Television of Serbia, and Novi Sad Philharmonic Orchestra. The Choir of Radio Television of Serbia is a leading vocal ensemble in the country.[249] The BEMUS is one of the most prominent classical music festivals in the South East Europe.
Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac

Traditional Serbian music includes various kinds of bagpipes, flutes, horns, trumpets, lutes, psalteries, drums and cymbals. The kolo is the traditional collective folk dance, which has a number of varieties throughout the regions. The most popular are those from Užice and Morava region. Sung epic poetry has been an integral part of Serbian and Balkan music for centuries. In the highlands of Serbia these long poems are typically accompanied on a one-string fiddle called the gusle, and concern themselves with themes from history and mythology. There are records of gusle being played at the court of the 13th-century King Stefan Nemanjić.[250]

The Serbian rock which was during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s part of former Yugoslav rock scene, used to be well developed, featuring various rock genres, and was well covered in the media, which included numerous magazines, radio and TV shows. During the 1990s and 2000s popularity of rock music declined in Serbia, and although several major mainstream acts managed to sustain their popularity, an underground and independent music scene developed. The most notable Serbian rock acts include Ekatarina Velika, Riblja Čorba, Bajaga i Instruktori, Disciplina Kičme, Električni Orgazam, Partibrejkers, Smak, Van Gogh, and others.

Pop music has mainstream popularity. Željko Joksimović won second place at the 2004 Eurovision Song Contest and Marija Šerifović managed to win the 2007 Eurovision Song Contest with the song "Molitva", and Serbia was the host of the 2008 edition of the Contest. Most popular pop singers include likes of Zdravko Čolić, Đorđe Balašević, Vlado Georgiev, Nataša Bekvalac among others.
Serbia won the Eurovision Song Contest 2007.

Turbo-folk music is sub-genre that has developed in Serbia in late 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s and has since enjoyed an immense popularity. It is a blend of folk music with pop and/or dance elements and can be seen as a result of the urbanization of folk music. In recent period turbo-folk featured even more pop music elements, and some of the performers were labeled as pop-folk. The most popular turbo-folk singers include Ceca, Aca Lukas, Jelena Karleuša and Seka Aleksić.

Balkan Brass, or truba ("trumpet") is a popular genre, especially in Central and Southern Serbia where Balkan Brass originated. The music has its tradition from the First Serbian Uprising. The trumpet was used as a military instrument to wake and gather soldiers and announce battles, the trumpet took on the role of entertainment during downtime, as soldiers used it to transpose popular folk songs. When the war ended and the soldiers returned to the rural life, the music entered civilian life and eventually became a music style, accompanying births, baptisms, weddings, and funerals. There are two main varietes of this genre, one from Western Serbia and the other from Southern Serbia. The best known Serbian Brass musician is Boban Marković, also one of the biggest names in the world of modern brass band bandleaders.

Most popular music festival are Guča Trumpet Festival with over 300,000 annual visitors and EXIT in Novi Sad ("The best European festival" in 2007 by UK Festival Awards and Yourope – the European Association of the 40 largest festivals in Europe) with 200,000 visitors in 2013.[251][252] Other festivals include Nišville Jazz Festival in Niš and Gitarijada rock festival in Zaječar.
Theatre and cinema
Main article: Cinema of Serbia
The Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad
Serbian film director Emir Kusturica who twice won the Palme d'Or at Cannes Film Festival

Serbia has a well-established theatrical tradition with Joakim Vujić considered the founder of modern Serbian theater.[253] Serbia has 38 professional theatres, the most important of which are National Theatre in Belgrade, Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad, National Theatre in Subotica, National Theatre in Niš and Knjaževsko-srpski teatar in Kragujevac (the oldest theatre in Serbia, established in 1835). The Belgrade International Theatre Festival – BITEF, founded in 1967, is one of the oldest theater festivals in the world, and it has become one of the five biggest European festivals.[254] Sterijino pozorje is, on the other hand, festival showcasing national drama plays. The most important Serbian playwrighters were Jovan Sterija Popović and Branislav Nušić, while today renowned names are Dušan Kovačević and Biljana Srbljanović.[255]

The Serbian cinema is one of the most dynamic smaller European cinematographies. Serbia's film industry is heavily subsidised by the government, mainly through grants approved by the Film Centre of Serbia. In 2011, there were 17 domestic feature films produced.[256] There are 20 operating cinemas in the country, of which 10 are multiplexes, with total attendance exceeding 2.6 million and comparatively high percentage of 32.3% of total sold tickets for domestic films.[257][258] Modern PFI Studios located in Šimanovci is nowadays Serbia's only film studio complex; it consists of 9 state-of-the-art sound stages and attracts mainly international productions, primarily American and West European.[259] The Yugoslav Film Archive used to be former Yugoslavia's and now is Serbia national film archive – with over 95 thousand film prints, it is among five largest film archives in the world.[260]

Serbian cinema dates back to 1896 with the release of the oldest movie in the Balkans, The Life and Deeds of the Immortal Vožd Karađorđe, a biography about Serbian revolutionary leader, Karađorđe.[261][262] The most famous Serbian filmmaker is Emir Kusturica who won two Golden Palms for Best Feature Film at the Cannes Film Festival, for When Father Was Away on Business in 1985 and then again for Underground in 1995.[263] Other renowned directors include Goran Paskaljević, Dušan Makavejev, Goran Marković, Srđan Dragojević and Srdan Golubović among others.

Steve Tesich, Serbian-American screenwriter, won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay in 1979 for the movie Breaking Away.
Media
Main articles: Television in Serbia and List of newspapers in Serbia
Front page of Politika, Serbian newspaper of record and the oldest daily in the Balkans, founded in 1904

The freedom of the press and the freedom of speech are guaranteed by the constitution of Serbia.[264] Serbia is ranked 63rd out of 179 countries in the 2013 Press Freedom Index report compiled by Reporters Without Borders while in 2013 report by Freedom House country has been classified as "partly free" and ranked 74th out of 196 countries.[265][266] Both reports noted that media outlets and journalists continue to face partisan and government pressure over editorial policies. Also, the media are now more heavily dependent on advertising contracts and government subsidies to survive financially.[267]

According to AGB Nielsen Research in 2009, Serbs on average watch five hours of television per day, making it the highest average in Europe.[268] There are six nationwide free-to-air television channels, with public broadcaster Radio Television of Serbia (RTS) operating two (RTS1 and RTS2) and remaining five are private broadcasters: Prva, B92, Pink and Happy TV. Viewing shares for these channels in 2012 were as follows: 23.5% for RTS1, 19.6% for Pink, 16.1% for Prva, 8.1% for B92, 3.6% for RTS2, and 2.8% for Happy TV.[269] There are 28 regional television stations and 74 local television stations.[96] Besides terrestrial channels there are a dozen Serbian television channels available only on cable or satellite.

There are 220 radio stations in Serbia.[96] Out of these, nine are radio stations with national coverage, including three of public broadcaster Radio Television of Serbia (Radio Belgrade 1, Radio Belgrade 2/Radio Belgrade 3 and Radio Belgrade 202), and five private ones (Radio S, Radio B92, Radio Indeks, Radio Fokus, and Radio Hit FM). Also, there are 49 regional stations and 162 local stations.[270]

There are 340 newspapers published in Serbia.[96] Some 14 daily newspapers are published in the country out of which 10 are nationwide dailies. Dailies Politika and Danas are Serbia's papers of record, former being the oldest newspaper in the Balkans, founded in 1904.[271] Highest circulation newspapers are tabloids Večernje Novosti, Blic, Kurir, and Alo!, all with more than 100,000 copies sold.[272] There are two sport newspapers (Sportski žurnal and Sport), one business daily Privredni pregled, two regional newspapers (Dnevnik published in Novi Sad and Narodne novine from Niš), one daily on Hungarian language (Magyar Szo published in Subotica), and a free newspaper of 24 sata, distributed only in Belgrade and Novi Sad.

There are 1,262 magazines published in the country.[96] Those include weekly news magazines NIN and Vreme, popular science magazine of Politikin Zabavnik, women's Lepota & Zdravlje, auto magazine SAT revija, IT magazine Svet kompjutera. In addition, there is a wide selection of Serbian editions of international magazines, such as Cosmopolitan, Elle, Grazia, Men's Health, National Geographic, Le Monde diplomatique, Playboy, Hello! and others.

As of 2013, the most visited websites in Serbian (mainly on the .rs domain) are the Serbian version of Google followed by online editions of printed daily Blic and news web-portal of B92 broadcaster.[273]
Cuisine
Main article: Serbian cuisine

Serbian cuisine is a heterogeneous cuisine, sharing characteristics of the Balkans (especially former Yugoslavia), the Mediterranean (Greek in particular), Turkish, and Central European (especially Austrian and Hungarian) cuisines. Each region has its own peculiarities and variations. Among traditional Serbian foods are ćevapčići, pljeskavica, sarma, pasulj, burek, gibanica, ajvar. The national drink is Slivovitz (šljivovica).[274]

Ćevapčići

Đuveč

Sarma

Gibanica

Slatko

Sports
Main article: Sport in Serbia

Sports play an important role in Serbian society, and the country has a strong sporting history. The most popular sports in Serbia are football, basketball, tennis, volleyball, and water polo.

Professional sports in Serbia are organized by sporting federations and leagues (in case of team sports). One of particularities of Serbian professional sports is existence of many multi-sports clubs (called "sports societies"), biggest and most successful of which are Red Star, Partizan, and Beograd in Belgrade, Vojvodina in Novi Sad, Radnički in Kragujevac, Spartak in Subotica.
Novak Đoković, tennis player, six-time Grand Slam champion
Nemanja Vidić, football player, two-time Premier League Player of the Season
Predrag "Peja" Stojaković, basketball player, three-time NBA All-Star

Football is the most popular sport in Serbia, and the Football Association of Serbia with 146,845 registered players, is the largest sporting association in the country.[275] Over the years country gave many internationally renowned players such as Dragan Džajić (officially recognized as "the best Serbian player of all times" by Football Association of Serbia; 1968 European Footballer of the Year third place) and more recent likes of Nemanja Vidić (Premier League Player of the Season and member of FIFPro World XI, both awards for 2008–09 and 2010–11 seasons respectively), Dejan Stanković (Serbia's most capped player with 103 appearances for national team), and Branislav Ivanović. Serbia has developed a reputation as one of the world's biggest exporters of expat footballers.[276] The Serbia national football team lacks relative success although it had qualified for three of the last five FIFA World Cups, with last appearance in 2010 FIFA World Cup. The two main football clubs in Serbia are Red Star and Partizan, both from Belgrade. Red Star is one of only two non-Western European clubs (other being Romania's Steaua Bucarest) that has won an elite UEFA competition, winning the 1991 European Cup. The same year, the club won the Intercontinental Cup. Partizan was the first non-Western European club which played in a European Cup final, in 1966. The rivalry between the two clubs is known as the "Eternal Derby", and is often cited as one of the most exciting sports rivalries in the world.[277][278] The Serbian SuperLiga attracts the highest average attendance of any professional sports league in the country with 823,122 spectators or 3,430 per game for 2012–13 season.[279] The current champion is Partizan, for the fifth consecutive year and 25th in total, thus tying with Red Star for number of championship titles.
The Serbian national football team with tifo in the Serbian tricolor being displayed at the Belgrade's Marakana stadium

Country is one of the traditional powerhouses of world basketball, as Serbia men's national basketball team have won two World Championships (in 1998 and 2002), three European Championships (1995, 1997, and 2001, respectively) and silver medal at 1996 Olympics as well. Total of 22 Serbian players played in the NBA in last two decades, including Predrag "Peja" Stojaković (three-time NBA All-Star), Vlade Divac (2001 NBA All-Star and FIBA Hall of Famer), Predrag Danilović, Vladimir Radmanović, Nenad Krstić, Marko Jarić, and Željko Rebrača. Serbian players that have not played in the NBA but nevertheless made a great impact on the game in Europe include four members of FIBA Hall of Fame from the 1960s and 1970s – Dragan Kićanović, Dražen Dalipagić, Radivoj Korać, and Zoran Slavnić – as well as recent stars of European basketball such as Dejan Bodiroga (2002 All-Europe Player of the Year) and currently active Miloš Teodosić (2009–2010 Euroleague MVP). Famous "Serbian coaching school" produced many renowned European basketball coaches, such as Željko Obradović (won record eight Euroleague titles with four different clubs), Božidar Maljković (four Euroleague titles with three different clubs), Dušan Ivković (two Euroleague titles), and Svetislav Pešić. The Basketball League of Serbia is the highest professional basketball league in Serbia. For the twelfth consecutive year, Partizan is the reigning champion of the league, followed by rivals Red Star. Partizan was the European champion in 1992.

Recent success of Serbian tennis players has led to an immense popularisation of tennis in Serbia. Novak Đoković, six-time Grand Slam champion and 2011 Laureus Sportsman of the Year, finished in 2011 and 2012 as No. 1 in the world and is currently No. 2 in the ATP Rankings.[280] Ana Ivanovic (champion of 2008 French Open) and Jelena Janković were both ranked No. 1 in the WTA Rankings. There were two No. 1 ranked-tennis double players as well: Nenad Zimonjić (three-time men's double and four-time mixed double Grand Slam champion) and Slobodan Živojinović. The Serbia men's tennis national team won the 2010 Davis Cup while Serbia women's tennis national team reached the final at 2012 Fed Cup.[281]

Serbia is one of the leading volleyball countries in the world. Serbia men's national volleyball team won the gold medal at 2000 Olympics, and twice won European Championship in 2001 and 2011. Serbian volleyball players include likes of Nikola Grbić, Vladimir Grbić, Ivan Miljković, and Goran Vujević. Also, Serbia women's national volleyball team won European Championship in 2011.

The Serbia men's national water polo team is, after Hungary, the most successful national team having won two World Championships (2005 and 2009), and four European Championships in 2001, 2003, 2006, and 2012 respectively.[282] With seven European champion titles, Partizan is the best European club in waterpolo history along with Croatian HAVK Mladost and Italian Pro Recco. Notable Serbian water polo players are Igor Milanović, Vladimir Vujasinović, Aleksandar Šapić, Aleksandar Šoštar and Vanja Udovičić.

Other noted Serbian athletes include: swimmers Milorad Čavić (2009 World champion on 50 meters butterfly and silver medalist on 100 meters butterfly as well as 2008 Olympic silver medalist on 100 meters butterfly in historic race with American swimmer Michael Phelps) and Nađa Higl (2009 World champion in 200 meters breaststroke – the first Serbian woman to become a world champion in swimming); track and field athletes Emir Bekrić (hurdler; bronze medalist at the 2013 World Championships) and Ivana Španović (long-jumper; bronze medalist at the 2013 World Championships); shooter Jasna Šekarić (1988 Olympic gold medalist) and taekwondoist Milica Mandić (2012 Olympic gold medalist).

Serbia hosted several major sport competitions in last decade, including the 2005 Men's European Basketball Championship, 2005 Men's European Volleyball Championship, 2006 Men's European Water Polo Championship, 2009 Summer Universiade, 2012 European Men's Handball Championship, and 2013 World Women's Handball Championship. The most important annual sporting events held in the country are Belgrade Marathon and Tour de Serbie cycling race.
See also
Portal icon Serbia portal

International rankings of Serbia
Outline of Serbia
Book icon Serbia at Wikipedia books

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Sources:

Ćorović, Vladimir (1941). "Iсторија српског народа (Istorija srpskog naroda)". Internet, 2001) (in Serbian). Пројекат Растко: Библиотека српске културе; Proјekat Rastko: Biblioteka srpske kulture.
Ćirković, Sima M. (2004). The Serbs. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20471-7.
Fine, John Van Antwerp (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7.
Fine, John Van Antwerp (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08149-3
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies.
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the CIA World Factbook.

Bibliography

Michael Boro Petrovich, The History of Modern Serbia 1804–1918, 2 vols. I–II, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York 1976.
Dušan T. Bataković (dir), Histoire du peuple serbe, Lausanne, L'Age d'Homme 2005.
Dušan T. Bataković, The Kosovo Chronicles, Plato Books, Belgrade 1992.
The Serbs and Their National Interest, N. Von Ragenfeld-Feldman & D. T. Bataković (eds.), SUC, San Francisco & Belgrade 1997
Kosovo and Metohija. Living in the Enclave, D. T. Bataković (ed.), Institute for Balkan Studies, SASA, Belgrade 2007.
Dušan T. Bataković, Kosovo. Un conflit sans fin ?, Lausanne, L'Age d'Homme 2008.
Dušan T. Bataković, Serbia's Kosovo Drama. A Historical Perspective, Čigoja Štampa, Belgrade 2012.

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Luvtowriteerotica said:
Yup. I enjoy being a thorn in your side. Unless you want to go cry to Kitty Mama and get my account deleted like the pussy you are.
Click to expand...

You aren't a thorn in my side, whiner. I couldn't give a flying fuck about you. You're a nobody.
 
pointless said:
Serbia
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Not to be confused with Republika Srpska.
This article is about the European country. For other uses, see Serbia (disambiguation).
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Republic of Serbia
Република Србија
Republika Srbija

Flag Coat of arms
Anthem:
Боже правде
Bože pravde
God of Justice
Menu
0:00
Location of Serbia (green) and Kosovo (light green)in Europe (dark grey).
Location of Serbia (green) and Kosovo (light green)
in Europe (dark grey).
Capital
and largest city Small Coat of Arms Belgrade.svg Belgrade
44°48′N 20°28′E
Official languages Serbian
Ethnic groups (2011[1])

83.3% Serbs
3.5% Hungarians
2.0% Roma
2.0% Bosniaks
6.8% other
2.2% unspecified
(excluding Kosovo)

Demonym Serbian
Government Parliamentary republic
- President Tomislav Nikolić
- Prime Minister Ivica Dačić
- Speaker of Parliament Nebojša Stefanović
Legislature National Assembly
Formation
- Serbian Principality 768
- Serbian Kingdom 1217
- Serbian Empire 1346
- Fall of Serbian Despotate 1459
- Principality of Serbia 1817
- Recognition 1878
- Kingdom of Serbia 1882
- Unification 1912–1918a
- Independent republic 2006
Area
- Total 88,361 km2 (113th)
34,116 sq mi
- Water (%) 0.13 (including Kosovo)
Population
- 2011 census 7,186,862 (excluding Kosovo)[2] (100th)
- Density 92.8/km2 (112th)
211/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2013 estimate
- Total $80.467 billion[3] (76th)
- Per capita $11,085 (excluding Kosovo)[3] (82nd)
GDP (nominal) 2013 estimate
- Total $43.7 billion[3] (79th)
- Per capita $6,017 (excluding Kosovo)[3] (92nd)
Gini (2011) 28.2
low
HDI (2013) 0.769[4]
high · 64th
Currency Serbian dinar (RSD)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
- Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
Drives on the right
Calling code +381
ISO 3166 code RS
Internet TLD

.rs
.срб

a. Raška, Kosovo in 1912, Vojvodina, Syrmia in 1918.

Serbia Listeni/ˈsɜrbiə/, officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija, pronounced [rɛpǔblika sř̩bija]), is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. A landlocked country in relative proximity to the Mediterranean,[5] Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia, and Montenegro to the west; it also borders Albania through the disputed territory of Kosovo. The capital of Serbia, Belgrade, is among Europe's oldest cities and one of the largest in Southeast Europe.

Following their settlement in the Balkans, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and Constantinople in 1217; the state was elevated to the Serbian Empire, in 1346. By the mid-16th century, the entire territory of modern-day Serbia was annexed by the Ottoman Empire, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 19th century, the Serbian revolution established the nation-state as the region's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism in the Balkans.[6] Following disastrous casualties in World War I, and subsequent unification of Habsburg crownlands of Vojvodina and Syrmia with Serbia, the country co-founded Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples, which would exist in various formations until 2006, when Montenegro declared its independence. In 2008 the parliament of UNMIK Kosovo declared independence, with divergent responses from the international community.

Serbia is a member of the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC, and CEFTA. It is also an official candidate for membership in the European Union,[7] which entered the EU accession talks procedure,[8][9] acceding country to the WTO[10] and is a militarily neutral state.[11] Serbia has a high Human Development Index and provides a universal health care system and free primary and secondary education. It is an upper-middle income economy (WB, IMF) with the service sector dominating country's economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture.

Contents

1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Early history
2.2 Middle Ages
2.3 Ottoman and Habsburg rule
2.4 Revolution and independence
2.5 Balkan Wars, World War I and the First Yugoslavia
2.6 World War II and the Second Yugoslavia
2.7 Breakup of Yugoslavia and political transition
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Hydrology
3.3 Environment
4 Politics
4.1 Administrative divisions
4.2 Foreign relations
4.3 Military
5 Demographics
5.1 Religion
5.2 Language
6 Economy
6.1 Agriculture
6.2 Industry
6.3 Energy
6.4 Transport
6.5 Telecommunications
6.6 Tourism
7 Education and science
8 Culture
8.1 Art
8.2 Literature
8.3 Music
8.4 Theatre and cinema
8.5 Media
8.6 Cuisine
8.7 Sports
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links

Etymology
Main article: Names of the Serbs and Serbia
Clay figure from Vinča culture, 4000–4500 BC, British Museum

The name "Serbia" was first mentioned as Greek: Σέρβια, meaning "land of the Serbs". There are many theories regarding the origin of the name of the Serbs. The most likely is that it is derived from the Old Slavic root *serb-, meaning "same".[12] Another proposed etymology is that of the Indo-European root *ser- "to watch over, protect", akin to Latin servare "to keep, guard, protect, preserve, observe".[13]
History
Main article: History of Serbia
Early history
Main articles: Prehistoric sites in Serbia and Roman heritage in Serbia
Sirmium, one of 4 Roman capitals during Tetrarchy

The Neolithic Starčevo and Vinča cultures existed in or near Belgrade and dominated the Balkans (as well as parts of Central Europe and Asia Minor) 8,500 years ago.[14][15] Lepenski Vir and Vinča-Belo Brdo are two important sites of these cultures, located at the banks of the Danube. Around 1000 BC, the Paleo-Balkan peoples known as Thracians, Dacians, Illyrians developed in the Balkans. Ancient Greeks expanded into the south of modern Serbia in the 4th century BC, the northwesternmost point of Alexander the Great's empire being the town of Kale-Krševica.[16] The Celtic tribe of Scordisci settled throughout the lands that eventually became Serbia in the 3rd century BC and built several fortifications, including those at Singidunum (present-day Belgrade) and Naissos (present-day Niš). The Scordisci formed their own tribal state in this area and the capital of that state was Singidunum.

The Romans conquered parts of modern-day Serbia in the 2nd century BC; in 167 BC when conquering the west, establishing the province of Illyricum, and the rest of the central part of present-day Serbia in 75 BC, establishing the province of Moesia Superior. The modern-day Srem region was conquered in 9 BC and Bačka and Banat in 106 AD after the Dacian wars. Despite its small size, contemporary Serbia extends fully or partially over several Roman provinces such as Moesia, Pannonia, Praevalitana, Dalmatia, Dacia and Macedonia. The chief towns of Upper Moesia (and wider) were: Singidunum, Viminacium, Remesiana, Naissus and especially, Sirmium which served as a Roman capital during the Tetrarchy.[17] Seventeen Roman Emperors were born in the area of modern-day Serbia, second only to contemporary Italy.[18] The most famous of these was Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor, who issued an edict ordering religious tolerance throughout the Empire. When the Roman Empire was divided in 395, the region remained under the eastern Byzantine Empire. After the 520s, Slavs appeared in the Byzantine Empire in great numbers.[19]
Old Ras, medieval royal capital, UNESCO
Coronation of Dušan I as East Roman Emperor in 1346.
Siege of Belgrade (1456)
Middle Ages
Main article: Serbia in the Middle Ages

The Serbs, as Slavs in the Byzantine world, lived in the so-called Slav lands, territories initially out of Byzantine control and independent.[20] In the 8th century, the Vlastimirović dynasty established the Serbian Principality. In 822, Serbia "stretched over the greater part of Dalmatia",[21] and Christianity was adopted as state religion in ca 870.[22] In the mid-10th century the state had emerged into a tribal confederation that stretched to the shores of the Adriatic Sea by the Neretva, the Sava, the Morava, and Skadar.[23] The state disintegrated after the death of the last known Vlastimirid ruler; the Byzantines annexed the region and held it for a century, until 1040 when the Serbs under the leadership of what would become the Vojislavljević dynasty revolted in Duklja, a maritime region.[24] In 1091, the Vukanović dynasty established the Serbian Grand Principality, based in Rascia.[24] The two-halves were reunited in 1142.[25]

In 1166, Stefan Nemanja assumed the throne, marking the beginning of a prospering Serbia, henceforth under the rule of the Nemanjić dynasty.[26] Nemanja's son Rastko (posth. Saint Sava), gained autocephaly for the Serbian Church in 1217 and authored the oldest known constitution, and at the same time Stefan the First-Crowned established the Serbian Kingdom.[27] Medieval Serbia reached its peak during the reign of Dušan the Mighty, who took advantage of the Byzantine civil war and doubled the size of the state by conquering territories to the south and east at the expense of Byzantium, reaching as far as the Peloponnese, also being crowned Emperor of Serbs and Greeks along the way. The Battle of Kosovo in 1389 marks a turning point and is considered as a beginning of the fall of the medieval Serbian state. The magnate families Lazarević and Branković ruled the suzerain Serbian Despotate afterwards (in the 15th and 16th centuries).

After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 and the Siege of Belgrade, the Serbian Despotate fell in 1459 following the siege of the provisional capital of Smederevo. The Smederevo Fortress is the largest medieval lowland type of fortresses in Europe. By 1455, central Serbia was completely conquered by the Ottoman Empire.[28] After repelling Ottoman attacks for over 70 years, Belgrade finally fell in 1521, opening the way for Ottoman expansion into Central Europe. Vojvodina, as a part of Habsburg Empire, resisted Ottoman rule until well into the 16th century.
Ottoman and Habsburg rule
Main articles: History of Ottoman Serbia and Great Serb Migrations

After the loss of independence to the Kingdom of Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, Serbia briefly regained sovereignty under Jovan Nenad in the 16th century. Three Habsburg invasions and numerous rebellions constantly challenged Ottoman rule. One famous incident was the Banat Uprising in 1595, which was part of the Long War between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs.[29] The area of modern Vojvodina endured a century-long Ottoman occupation before being ceded to the Habsburg Empire at the end of the 17th century under the Treaty of Karlowitz.
Examples of Ottoman and Habsburg heritage of Serbia

In all Serb lands south of the rivers Danube and Sava, the nobility was eliminated and the peasantry was enserfed to Ottoman masters, while much of the clergy fled or were confined to the isolated monasteries. Under the Ottoman system, Serbs as the Christians were considered an inferior class of people and subjected to heavy taxes and a small portion of the Serbian populace experienced Islamisation. Ottomans abolished Serbian patriarchate (1459) but reestablished it however in 1555, providing for limited continuation of Serbian cultural traditions within the empire.[30]

As the Great Serb Migrations depopulated most of southern Serbia, the Serbs sought refuge across the Danube River in Vojvodina to the north and the Military Frontier in the west, where they were granted rights by the Austrian crown under measures such as the Statuta Wallachorum of 1630. The ecclesiastical center of the Serbs also moved northwards, to the Metropolitanate of Sremski Karlovci, as the Patriarchate of Peć was once-again abolished by the Ottomans in 1766.[31] Following several petitions, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I formally granted Serbs who wished to leave the right to their autonomous crownland.[32]
Revolution and independence
Main articles: Serbian Revolution, Principality of Serbia, and Kingdom of Serbia
See also: Serbian Vojvodina and May Overthrow
Karađorđe Petrović and Miloš Obrenović, leaders of the Serbian Revolution
Principality and Habsburg Serbia in 1848
May Assembly

The Serbian Revolution for independence from the Ottoman Empire lasted eleven years, from 1804 until 1815. The revolution comprised two separate uprisings which gained autonomy from the Ottoman Empire that eventually evolved towards full independence (1835–1867).[33][34]

During the First Serbian Uprising, led by Duke Karađorđe Petrović, Serbia was independent for almost a decade before the Ottoman army was able to reoccupy the country. Shortly after this, the Second Serbian Uprising began. Led by Miloš Obrenović, it ended in 1815 with a compromise between Serbian revolutionaries and Ottoman authorities.[35] Likewise, Serbia was one of the first nations in the Balkans to abolish feudalism.[36] The Convention of Ackerman in 1826, the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 and finally, the Hatt-i Sharif, recognized the suzerainty of Serbia. The first Serbian Constitution was adopted on 15 February 1835.[37][38]

Following the clashes between the Ottoman army and Serbs in Belgrade in 1862, and under pressure from the Great Powers, by 1867 the last Turkish soldiers left the Principality. By enacting a new constitution without consulting the Porte, Serbian diplomats confirmed the de facto independence of the country. In 1876, Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire, proclaiming its unification with Bosnia. The formal independence of the country was internationally recognized at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, which formally ended the Russo-Turkish War; this treaty, however, prohibited Serbia from uniting with Bosnia by placing it under Austro-Hungarian occupation, alongside the occupation of Raška (Sandžak).[39] From 1815 to 1903, the Principality of Serbia was ruled by the House of Obrenović, except from 1842 to 1858, when it was led by Prince Aleksandar Karađorđević. In 1882, Serbia became a Kingdom, ruled by King Milan I. In 1903, following the May Overthrow, the House of Karađorđević, descendants of the revolutionary leader Karađorđe Petrović, assumed power. The 1848 revolution in Austria lead to the establishment of the autonomous territory of Serbian Vojvodina. By 1849, the region was transformed into the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar.
Balkan Wars, World War I and the First Yugoslavia
Main articles: Balkan Wars, Serbian Campaign (World War I), and Kingdom of Yugoslavia

In the course of the First Balkan War in 1912, the Balkan League defeated the Ottoman Empire and conquered its European territories, which enabled territorial expansion into Raška and Kosovo. The Second Balkan War soon ensued when Bulgaria turned on its former allies, but was defeated, resulting Treaty of Bucharest. In two years, Serbia enlarged its territory by 80% and its population by 50%;[40] it also suffered high casualties on the eve of World War I, with around 20,000 dead.[41]
Serbian soldiers on the island of Corfu during World War I, 1916–1918

On 28 June 1914, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Young Bosnia organization, led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia.[42] In defense of its ally Serbia, Russia mobilized its troops, which resulted in Austria-Hungary's ally Germany declaring war on Russia. The retaliation by Austria-Hungary against Serbia activated a series of military alliances that set off a chain reaction of war declarations across the continent, leading to the outbreak of World War I within a month.[43] Serbia won the first major battles of World War I, including the Battle of Cer and Battle of Kolubara – marking the first Allied victories against the Central Powers in World War I.[44] Despite initial success, it was eventually overpowered by the Central Powers in 1915. Most of its army and some people went into exile to Greece and Corfu, where they recovered, regrouped and returned to the Macedonian front to lead a final breakthrough through enemy lines on 15 September 1918, liberating Serbia and defeating the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria.[45] Serbia, with its campaign, was a major Balkan Entente Power[46] which contributed significantly to the Allied victory in the Balkans in November 1918, especially by helping France force Bulgaria's capitulation.[47] Serbia was classified as a minor Entente power.[48] Serbia's casualties accounted for 8% of the total Entente military deaths; 58% (243,600) soldiers of the Serbian army perished in the war.[49] The total number of casualties is placed around 700,000,[50] more than 16% of Serbia's prewar size,[43] and a majority (57%) of its overall male population.[51][52][53]
White Palace, royal residence

As the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, the territory of Syrmia united with Serbia on 24 November 1918, followed by Banat, Bačka and Baranja a day later, thereby bringing the entire Vojvodina into the Serb Kingdom. On 26 November 1918, the Podgorica Assembly deposed the House of Petrović-Njegoš, and uniting Montenegro with Serbia. On 1 December 1918, Serbian Prince Regent Alexander of Serbia proclaimed the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes under King Peter I of Serbia.

King Peter was succeeded by his son, Alexander, in August 1921. Serb centralists and Croat autonomists clashed in the parliament, and most governments were fragile and short-lived. Nikola Pašić, a conservative prime minister, headed or dominated most governments until his death. King Alexander changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia and changed the internal divisions from the 33 oblasts to nine new banovinas. The effect of Alexander's dictatorship was to further alienate the non-Serbs from the idea of unity.[54] Alexander was assassinated in Marseille, during an official visit in 1934 by Vlado Chernozemski, member of the IMRO. Alexander was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son Peter II and a regency council headed by his cousin, Prince Paul. Prime Minister Dragiša Cvetković, negotiated a solution to the concerns of the Croatian populace with Vladko Maček. In August 1939 the Cvetković–Maček Agreement established an autonomous Banate of Croatia.
World War II and the Second Yugoslavia
Main articles: Invasion of Yugoslavia, Yugoslav Front, and Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
See also: Axis occupation of Serbia and World War II persecution of Serbs
Damage caused by Nazi bombing in Belgrade, 1941

In 1941, in spite of Yugoslav attempts to remain neutral in the war, the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia. The territory of modern Serbia was divided between Hungary, Bulgaria, Independent Croatia and Italy (greater Albania and Montenegro), while the remaining part of Serbia was placed under German Military administration, with a Serbian puppet governments led by Milan Aćimović and Milan Nedić. The occupied territory was the scene of a civil war between royalist Chetniks commanded by Draža Mihailović and communist partisans commanded by Josip Broz Tito. Against these forces were arrayed Axis auxiliary units of the Serbian Volunteer Corps and the Serbian State Guard. Draginac and Loznica massacre of 2,950 villagers in Western Serbia in 1941 was the first large execution of civilians in occupied Serbia by Nazis, with Kragujevac massacre and Novi Sad Raid of Jews and Serbs by Hungarian fascists being the most notorious, with over 3,000 victims in each case.[55][56][57] After one year of occupation, around 16,000 Serbian Jews were murdered in the area, or around 90% of its pre-war Jewish population. Many concentration camps were established across the area. Banjica concentration camp was the largest concentration camp, with primary victims being Serbian Jews, Roma, and Serb political prisoners.[58]
Kragujevac massacre memorial

The Axis puppet state of the Independent State of Croatia committed large-scale persecution and genocide of Serbs, Jews, and Roma.[59] The estimate of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum indicates that between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia, Bosnia and northern Serbia were murdered during the Ustaše genocide campaign;[60] same figures are supported by the Jewish Virtual Library.[61] Official Yugoslav sources used to estimate more than 700,000 victims, mostly Serbs.[62] The Jasenovac memorial so far lists 82,085 names killed at the this concentration camp alone,[63] out of around 100,000 estimated victims (75% of whom were of Serbian origin).[64] Out of roughly 1 million casualties in all of Yugoslavia up until 1944,[65][66] around 250,000 were citizens of Serbia of different ethnicities.[67] The Republic of Užice was a short-lived liberated territory established by the Partisans and the first liberated territory in World War II Europe, organized as a military mini-state that existed in the autumn of 1941 in the west of occupied Serbia. By late 1944, the Belgrade Offensive swung in favour of the partisans in the civil war; the partisans subsequently gained control of Yugoslavia.[68] Following the Belgrade Offensive, the Syrmian Front was the last sequence of the World War Two in Serbia. Between 60,000 and 70,000 people were killed in Serbia during the communist takeover.[69]

The victory of the Communist Partisans resulted in the abolition of the monarchy and a subsequent orchestrated constitutional referendum. A single-party state was soon established in Yugoslavia by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia. All opposition was repressed and people deemed to be promoting opposition to socialism or promoting separatism were imprisoned or executed for sedition. Serbia became a constituent republic within the SFRY known as the Socialist Republic of Serbia, and had a republic-branch of the federal communist party, the League of Communists of Serbia. Serbia's most powerful and influential politician in Tito-era Yugoslavia was Aleksandar Ranković, one of the "big four" Yugoslav leaders, alongside Tito, Edvard Kardelj, and Milovan Đilas.[70] Ranković was later removed from the office because of the disagreements regarding Kosovo’s nomenklatura and the unity of Serbia.[70] Ranković's dismissal was highly unpopular amongst Serbs.[71] Pro-decentralization reformers in Yugoslavia succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralization of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognizing a Yugoslav Muslim nationality.[71] As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale.[71] Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the University of Pristina as an Albanian language institution.[71] These changes created widespread fear amongst Serbs of being treated as second-class citizens.[72]
Breakup of Yugoslavia and political transition
Main articles: Breakup of Yugoslavia, Yugoslav Wars, Kosovo War, and Republic of Serbia (1992–2006)

In 1989, Slobodan Milošević rose to power in Serbia. Milošević promised reduction of powers for the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina, where his allies subsequently overtook the power, during the Anti-bureaucratic revolution.[73] This ignited tensions with the communist leadership of the other republics, and awoke nationalism across the country, that eventually resulted in the Breakup of Yugoslavia, with Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia declaring independence.[74] Serbia and Montenegro remained together as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).
Slobodan Milošević, President of Serbia from 1989–1997, President of FR Yugoslavia, 1997–2000.

Fueled by ethnic tensions, the Yugoslav Wars erupted, with the most severe conflicts taking place in Croatia and Bosnia, where ethnic Serb populations opposed independence from Yugoslavia. The FRY remained outside the conflicts, but provided logistic, military and financial support to Serb forces in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In response, the UN imposed sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in May 1992,[75] which led to political isolation and the collapse of the economy. Multiparty democracy was introduced in Serbia in 1990, officially dismantling the single-party system. Critics of Milošević claimed that the government continued to be authoritarian despite constitutional changes, as Milošević maintained strong political influence over the state media and security apparatus.[76][77] When the ruling SPS refused to accept its defeat in municipal elections in 1996, Serbians engaged in large protests against the government. Between 1998 and 1999, peace was broken again, when the situation in Kosovo worsened with continued clashes between Yugoslav security forces and the KLA. The confrontations led to the Kosovo War.[78]

In September 2000, opposition parties accused Milošević of electoral fraud. A campaign of civil resistance followed, led by the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS), a broad coalition of anti-Milošević parties. This culminated on 5 October when half a million people from all over the country congregated in Belgrade, compelling Milošević to concede defeat.[79] The fall of Milošević ended Yugoslavia's international isolation. Milošević was sent to the ICTY. The DOS announced that FR Yugoslavia would seek to join the European Union. In 2003, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was renamed Serbia and Montenegro; the EU opened negotiations with the country for the Stabilization and Association Agreement. Serbia's political climate has remained tense and in 2003, the prime minister Zoran Đinđić was assassinated as result of a plot originating from circles of organized crime and former security officials.

On 21 May 2006, Montenegro held a referendum to determine whether to end its union with Serbia. The results showed 55.4% of voters in favor of independence, which was just above the 55% required by the referendum. On 5 June 2006, the National Assembly of Serbia declared Serbia to be the legal successor to the former state union.[80] The province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. Serbia immediately condemned the declaration and continues to deny any statehood to Kosovo. The declaration has sparked varied responses from the international community, some welcoming it, while others condemn the unilateral move.[81] Status neutral talks between Serbia and Kosovo-Albanian authorities are held in Brussels, mediated by the EU.

In April 2008 Serbia was invited to join the Intensified Dialogue programme with NATO despite the diplomatic rift with the alliance over Kosovo.[82] Serbia officially applied for membership in the European Union on 22 December 2009,[83] and received candidate status on 1 March 2012[7][84] while the EU accession negotiations are expected to commence in January 2014.[85]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Serbia
Relief of Serbia

Located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km² (including Kosovo), which places it at 113th place in the world. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km (Albania 115 km, Bosnia and Herzegovina 302 km, Bulgaria 318 km, Croatia 241 km, Hungary 151 km, Macedonia 221 km, Montenegro 203 km and Romania 476 km).[86] All of Serbia's border with Albania, and parts of the borders with Macedonia, Montenegro, are under control of the UNMIK.

The Pannonian Plain covers the northern third of the country (mainly Vojvodina and Mačva) while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of central part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart, consists chiefly of hills traversed by the rivers. Mountains dominate the southern third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest following the flow of the rivers Drina and Ibar. Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in north–south direction in the eastern Serbia.[87] Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system. Elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 m (highest peak in Serbia, excluding Kosovo) to the lowest point of just 17 m near Danube river at Prahovo.[88]
Climate
Main article: Climate of Serbia

The climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. With mean January temperatures around 0 °C (32 °F), and mean July temperatures around 22 °C (72 °F), it can be classified as transitional. In the north, the climate is more continental, with cold winters, and hot, humid summers along with well distributed rainfall patterns. In the south, summers and autumns are drier, and winters are relatively cold, with heavy inland snowfall in the mountains. Differences in elevation, proximity to the Adriatic Sea and large river basins, as well as exposure to the winds account for climate variations.[89] Southern Serbia is subject to Mediterranean influences.[90] However, the Dinaric Alps and other mountain ranges contribute to the cooling of most of the warm air masses. Winters are quite harsh in the Pešter plateau, because of the mountains which encircle it.[91] One of the climatic features of Serbia is Košava, a cold and very squally southeastern wind which starts in the Carpathian Mountains and follows the Danube northwest through the Iron Gate where it gains a jet effect and continues to Belgrade and can spread as far south as Niš.[92]

The average annual air temperature for the period 1961–1990 for the area with an altitude of up to 300 m (984 ft) is 10.9 °C (51.6 °F). The areas with an altitude of 300 to 500 m (984 to 1,640 ft) have an average annual temperature of around 10.0 °C (50.0 °F), and over 1,000 m (3,281 ft) of altitude around 6.0 °C (42.8 °F).[93] The lowest recorded temperature in Serbia was −39.5 °C (−39.1 °F) on 13 January 1985, Karajukića Bunari in Pešter, and the highest was 44.9 °C or 112.8 °F, on 24 July 2007, recorded in Smederevska Palanka.[94]
Hydrology
Main articles: Rivers of Serbia and List of lakes in Serbia
Đerdap lake in eastern Serbia

Almost all of Serbia's rivers drain to the Black Sea, by way of the Danube river. The Danube, second largest European river, passes through Serbia with 21% of its overall length and represents country's largest source of fresh water. It is joined by its biggest tributaries, the Great Morava (longest river entirely in Serbia with 493 km of length), Sava and Tisza rivers.[95] One notable exception is the Pčinja which flows into the Aegean.

Due to the configuration of the terrain, natural lakes are sparse and small; most of them are located in Vojvodina, like the glacial lake Palić (covering 6 square kilometers, country's largest natural lake) or numerous oxbow lakes along river flows (like Zasavica and Carska Bara). However, there are numerous artificial lakes, mostly due to hydroelectric dams, the biggest being Đerdap on Danube with 163 square kilometers on the Serbian side (a total area of 253 square kilometers is shared with Romania) as well as the deepest (with maximum depth of 92 meters); Perućac on the Drina, and Vlasina. The largest waterfall, Jelovarnik, located in Kopaonik, is 71 meters high.[96]

Abundance of relatively unpolluted surface waters and numerous underground natural and mineral water sources of high water quality presents a chance for export and economy improvement; however, more extensive exploitation and production of bottled water began only recently.
River Km in Serbia Total length
(km) Number of countries
1 Danube 588 2783 9
2 Great Morava 493 493 1
3 Ibar 250 272 2
4 Drina 220 346 3
5 Sava 206 945 4
6 Timok 202 202 1
7 Tisa 168 966 4
8 Nišava 151 218 2
9 Tamiš 118 359 2
10 Begej 75 244 2
Environment
See also: List of protected natural resources in Serbia
Serbian Spruce tree endemic to Tara National Park
White-head Vulture survives around Uvac Gorge

With 29.1% of its territory covered by forest, Serbia is considered to be a middle-forested country. Forest coverage is, when compared on a global scale, similar to world forest coverage which accounts for 30%, but it is somewhat lower than the European average of 35%. The total forest area in Serbia is 2,252,000 hа (1,194,000 hа or 53% are state-owned, and 1,058,387 hа or 47% are privately owned) or 0.3 ha per inhabitant.[97] The most common trees are oak, beech, pines and firs.

Serbia is a country of rich ecosystem and species diversity – covering only 1.9% of the whole European territory Serbia is home to 39% of European vascular flora, 51% of European fish fauna, 40% of European reptile and amphibian fauna, 74% of European bird fauna, 67% European mammal fauna.[98] It's abundance of mountains and rivers make it an ideal environment for a variety of animals, many of which are protected including wolves, lynx, bears, foxes and stags. Mountain of Tara in western Serbia is one of the last regions in Europe where bears can still live in absolute freedom.[99] Serbia is also home to about 380 species of bird, including the imperial eagle, the great bustard, the corn crake and the Madagascar pochard. In Carska Bara, there are over 300 bird species on just a few square kilometers.[100] Uvac Gorge is considered one of the last habitats of White-head vulture in Europe.[101]

There are 377 protected areas of Serbia, encompassing 4,947 square kilometers or 6.4% of the country. The "Spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia" states that the total protected area should be increased to 12% by 2021.[98] Those protected areas include 5 national parks (Đerdap, Tara, Kopaonik, Fruška Gora and Šar Mountain), 15 nature parks, 15 "landscapes of outstanding features", 61 nature reserves, and 281 natural monuments.[96]

Air pollution is a significant problem in Bor area, due to work of large copper mining and smelting complex, and Pančevo where oil and petrochemical industry is based.[102] Some cities suffer from water supply problems, due to mismanagement and low investments in the past, as well as water pollution (like the pollution of the Ibar River from the Trepča zinc-lead combinate, affecting the city of Kraljevo, or the presence of natural arsenic in underground waters in Zrenjanin). Poor waste management has been identified as one of the most important environmental problems in Serbia and the recycling is a fledgling activity, with only 15% of its waste being turned back for reuse.[103] The 1999 NATO bombing caused serious damage to the environment, with several thousand tons of toxic chemicals stored in targeted factories and refineries released into the soil and water basins.
Politics
Main articles: Politics of Serbia and List of political parties in Serbia
House of the National Assembly in Belgrade

Serbia is a parliamentary republic. Government in Serbia is divided into legislative, executive and judiciary branches.

Serbia had one of the first modern constitutions in Europe, 1835 Constitution (known as "Sretenje Constitution"), which was at the time considered among the most progressive and liberal constitutions in the world. Since then it has adopted 10 different constitutions.[104] The current constitution was adopted on 8 November 2006 in the aftermath of Montenegro independence referendum which by consequence renewed the independece of Serbia itself.[105] The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding the Constitution.

The President of the Republic (Predsednik Republike) is the head of state, and elected by popular vote to a five-year term and is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of two terms. In addition to being the commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the consent of the parliament, and has some influence on foreign policy.[106] Tomislav Nikolić is the current president following the 2012 presidential election.[107] Seat of the presidency is Novi Dvor.

The Government (Vlada) is composed of the prime minister and cabinet ministers. The Government is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies. The current prime minister is Ivica Dačić of the Socialist Party of Serbia.[108]

The National Assembly (Narodna skupština) is a unicameral legislative body. The National Assembly has the power to enact laws, approve the budget, schedule presidential elections, select and dismiss the Prime Minister and other ministers, declare war, and ratify international treaties and agreements.[109] It is composed of 250 proportionally elected members who serve four-year terms. The largest political parties in Serbia are the centre-right Serbian Progressive Party, centre-left Democratic Party and leftist Socialist Party of Serbia.[110]

Serbia has a three-tiered judicial system, made up of the Supreme Court of Cassation as the court of the last resort, Courts of Appeal as the appellate instance, and Basic and High courts as the general jurisdictions at first instance. Courts of special jurisdictions are the Administrative Court, commercial courts (including the Commercial Court of Appeal at second instance) and misdemeanour courts (including High Misdemeanor Court at second instance).[111] The judiciary is overseen by the Ministry of Justice. Serbia has a typical civil law legal system.

Law enforcement is the responsibility of the Serbian Police, which is subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior. Serbian Police fields 26,527 uniformed officers.[112] National security and counterintelligence are the responsibility of the Security Information Agency (BIA).[113]
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Serbia

By the Law on Territorial Organization,[114] adopted by the National Assembly of Serbia on 29 December 2007.[115] the units of the territorial organization are: municipalities, cities and autonomous provinces.[114]

Serbia has two autonomous provinces: Vojvodina in the north (39 municipalities and 6 cities) and claims Kosovo and Metohija[114] in the south. The Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (or just Kosovo for short) has been transferred to the administration of UNMIK since June 1999. In February 2008, the Government of Kosovo declared its independence, a move recognized by 106 countries (including most of the European Union and the US) but not recognized by Serbia or the United Nations. The remaining area, termed Central Serbia, never had its own regional authority.

Serbia (excluding Kosovo) is organized into 25 districts (okruzi). Belgrade constitutes a district of its own.[116] They are regional centers of state authority, but have no powers of their own; they present purely administrative divisions. Belgrade is a separate territorial unit established by the Constitution and law,[117]

Further, there are 138 municipalities (opštine) and 23 cities (gradovi) (excluding Kosovo), which form the basic units of local self-government.[114]

Since 1999, the territory of Kosovo has officially been administered by UNMIK as per UNSC Resolution 1244 of the United Nations. The Provisional Institutions of Self-Government (PISG), has an assembly and a president. On 17 February 2008, representatives of the people of Kosovo, acting outside the UNMIK's PISG framework (not representing the Assembly of Kosovo or any other of these institutions),[118] declared that Kosovo is independent from Serbia. Serbia does not recognize the declaration and considers the act illegal and illegitimate.[119]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Serbia
See also: Accession of Serbia to the European Union and Political status of Kosovo
Serbian embassy in Prague, Czech Republic

Serbia has established diplomatic relations with 182 UN member states, the Holy See, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, and the European Union.[120] Foreign relations are conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Serbia has a network of 65 embassies and 23 consulates internationally.[121] There are 65 foreign embassies, 5 consulates and 4 liaison offices in Serbia.[122]

Serbian foreign policy is focused on achieving the strategic goal of becoming a member state of the European Union (EU). Serbia started the process of joining the EU by signing of the Stabilisation and Association Agreement on 29 April 2008 and officially applied for membership in the European Union on 22 December 2009.[123] It received a full candidate status on 1 March 2012 and is set to start accession talks in January 2014.[8][124]

The province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. The declaration of independence has sparked varied responses from the international community, some welcoming it, while others condemn the unilateral move.[81] Serbia has consistently recalled its ambassadors from states which have recognized Kosovo, in protest.[125]
Military
Main articles: Serbian Armed Forces and Military history of Serbia

The Serbian Armed Forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defence, and are composed of the Army and the Air Force. Although a landlocked country, Serbia operates a river flotilla which patrols on the Danube, Sava, and Tisza rivers. The Serbian Chief of the General Staff reports to the Defence Minister. The Chief of Staff is appointed by the President, who is the Commander-in-chief.[106] As of 2012, Serbia defence budget amounts to $612 million or an estimated 1.6% of the country's GDP.[126]
A Serbian Air Force MiG-29 in mid-takeoff

Traditionally relying on a large number of conscripts, Serbian Armed Forces went through a period of downsizing, restructuring and professionalisation. Conscription was abolished on 1 January 2011.[127] Serbian Armed Forces have 28,000 active troops,[128] supplemented by the "active reserve" which numbers 20,000 members and "passive reserve" with about 170,000.[129][130]

Serbia participates in the NATO Partnership for Peace program, but has shown no intention of joining NATO, due to significant popular rejection, largely derived from the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999.[131] The country also signed the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe. The Serbian Armed Forces take part in several multinational peacekeeping missions, including deployments in Lebanon, Cyprus, Ivory Coast, and Liberia.[132]

Serbia is a large producer and exporter of military equipment in the region. Defence exports totaled around $250 million in 2011.[126] Serbia exports across the world, notably to the Middle East, Africa, Southeast Asia, and North America.[133] The defence industry has seen significant growth over the years and it continues to grow on a yearly basis.[134][135]
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Serbia and Demographic history of Serbia
Ethnic composition (2011)

Serbs
 
83.3%
Hungarians
 
3.5%
Roma
 
2.0%
Bosniaks
 
2.0%
Croats
 
0.8%
Slovaks
 
0.7%
Other
 
5.3%
Unspecified
 
2.2%

As of 2011 census, Serbia (excluding Kosovo) has a total population of 7,186,862 and the overall population density is medium as it stands at 92.8 inhabitants per square kilometer.[136] The census was not conducted in Kosovo which held its own census that numbered their total population at 1,739,825,[137] excluding Serb-inhabited North Kosovo, as Serbs from that area (about 50,000) boycotted the census.

Serbia is in an acute demographic crisis since the beginning of the 1990s, as death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate. It has one of the most negative population growth rates in the world, ranking 225th out of 233 countries and territories overall.[138] The total fertility rate of 1.44 children per mother, is one of the lowest in the world.[139] Serbia has a comparatively old overall population (among the 10 oldest in the world), with the average age of 42.2 years.[140] The life expectancy in Serbia at birth is 73.9 years.[141] A fifth of all households consist of only one person and just one-fourth of 4 and more persons.[142]

During the 1990s, Serbia used to have the largest refugee population in Europe.[143] Refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Serbia formed between 7% and 7.5% of its population – about half a million refugees sought refuge in the country following the series of Yugoslav wars, mainly from Croatia (and to a lesser extent from Bosnia and Herzegovina) and the IDPs from Kosovo.[144] Meanwhile, it is estimated that 300,000 people left Serbia during the 1990s, 20% of which had a higher education.[145][146]

Serbs with 5,988,150 are the largest ethnic group in Serbia, representing 83.3% of the total population (excluding Kosovo). With a population of 253,899, Hungarians are the largest ethnic minority in Serbia, concentrated predominately in northern Vojvodina and representing 3.5% of the country's population (13% in Vojvodina). Roma population stands at 147,604 according to the 2011 census but unofficial estimates place their actual number between 400,000 and 500,000.[147] Bosniaks with 145,278 are third largest ethnic minority mainly inhabiting Raška region in southwestern part of the country. Other minority groups include Croats, Slovaks, Albanians, Montenegrins, Vlachs, Romanians, Macedonians and Bulgarians. The Chinese, estimated at about 15,000, are the only significant immigrant minority.[148][149]

Majority of population, or 59.7%, reside in urban areas and some 16.1% in Belgrade alone.[150] Serbia has only one city with more than a million inhabitants and four with more than 100,000 inhabitants.
Largest cities or towns of Serbia


Belgrade
Belgrade
Novi Sad
Novi Sad
Niš
Niš
Rank City name District Urban population Municipal population

view
talk
edit

Kragujevac
Kragujevac
Subotica
Subotica
Zrenjanin
Zrenjanin
1 Belgrade City of Belgrade 1,233,796 1,659,440
2 Novi Sad South Bačka District 277,522 341,625
3 Niš Nišava District 187,544 260,237
4 Kragujevac Šumadija District 150,835 179,417
5 Subotica North Bačka District 105,681 141,554
6 Zrenjanin Central Banat District 76,511 123,362
7 Pančevo South Banat District 76,203 123,414
8 Čačak Moravica District 73,331 115,337
9 Novi Pazar Raška District 66,527 100,410
10 Kraljevo Raška District 64,175 125,488
11 Smederevo Podunavlje District 64,175 108,209
12 Leskovac Jablanica District 60,288 144,206
13 Valjevo Kolubara District 58,932 90,301
14 Kruševac Rasina District 58,745 128,752
15 Vranje Pčinja District 55,138 82,782
16 Šabac Mačva District 53,919 115,884
17 Užice Zlatibor District 52,646 78,018
18 Sombor West Bačka District 47,623 85,569
19 Požarevac Braničevo District 44,183 74,070
20 Pirot Pirot District 38,785 57,911
Census 2011
Religion
Main articles: Religion in Serbia and Serbian Orthodox Church
The Cathedral of Saint Sava in Belgrade, the largest Orthodox and among ten largest Christian churches in the world

The Constitution of Serbia defines it as a secular state with guaranteed religious freedom. Serbia is one of religiously diverse European countries, with an Eastern Orthodox majority, and a Catholic and Islamic minority, among other smaller confessions.[151]

Orthodox Christians with 6,079,396 comprise 84.5% of country's population. The Serbian Orthodox Church is the largest and traditional church of the country, adherents of which are overwhelmingly Serbs. Other Orthodox Christian communities in Serbia include Montenegrins, Romanians, Vlachs, Macedonians and Bulgarians.

There are 356,957 Roman Catholics in Serbia, roughly 5% of the population, mostly in Vojvodina (especially its northern part) which is home to minority ethnic groups such as Hungarians, Croats, Bunjevci, as well as to some Slovaks and Czechs.[151] Protestantism accounts for about 1% of the country's population, chiefly among Slovaks in Vojvodina as well as among Reformist Hungarians.

Muslims, with 222,282 or 3% of population, form third largest religious group. Islam has a strong historic following in the southern regions of Serbia, primarily in southern Raška. Bosniaks are the largest Islamic community in Serbia; estimates are that some third of country's Roma people are Muslim.

There are only 578 Jews by faith in Serbia.[152] Jews from Spain settled in Serbia after following the expulsion from Spain in late 15th century. The community has flourished and reached peak with 33,000 before World War II (of which almost 90% were living in Belgrade and Vojvodina), however later on, the wars that ravaged the region resulted in a great part of the Jewish Serbian population emigrating from the country.[153] Today, the Belgrade Synagogue is the only functioning synagogue, saved by the local population during World War II from destruction at the hands of the Nazis. Other synagogues, such as Subotica Synagogue, which used to be fourth largest synagogue building in Europe, and Novi Sad Synagogue, have been converted into museums and art spaces.

Atheists numbered 80,053 or 1.1% of population and additional 4,070 are Agnostics.[152]
Language
Main articles: Languages of Serbia and Serbian language

The official language is Serbian, member of the South Slavic group of languages, and is native to 88% of the population.[152] Serbian is the only European language with active digraphia, using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. Serbian Cyrillic was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, who created the alphabet on phonemic principles, the Cyrillic itself has its origins in Cyril and Methodius' transformation of the Greek script in the 9th century.

Recognized minority languages are: Hungarian, Slovak, Albanian, Romanian, Bulgarian and Rusyn as well as Bosnian and Croatian which are completely mutual intelligible with Serbian. All these languages are in official use in municipalities or cities where more than a 15% of population consists of national minority.[154] In Vojvodina, provincial administration uses, besides Serbian, five other languages (Hungarian, Slovak, Croatian, Romanian and Rusyn).
Economy
Main article: Economy of Serbia
Graphical depiction of Serbia's product exports

Serbia has an emerging market economy in upper-middle income range.[155] According to the IMF, Serbian nominal GDP in 2013 is officially estimated at $43.7 billion or $6,017 per capita while purchasing power parity GDP was $80.467 billion or $11,085 per capita.[3] The economy is dominated by services which accounts for 63.8% of GDP, followed by industry with 23.5% of GDP, and agriculture at 12.7% of GDP.[156] The official currency of Serbia is Serbian dinar (ISO code: RSD), and the central bank is National Bank of Serbia. The Belgrade Stock Exchange is the only stock exchange in the country, with market capitalization of $8.9 billion (as of Q4 2013) and BELEX 15 as the main index representing the 15 most liquid stocks.[157]

The economy has been affected by the global economic crisis. After eight years of strong economic growth (average of 4.45% per year), Serbia entered the recession in 2009 with negative growth of −3% and again in 2012 with −1.7%.[158] As the government was fighting effects of crisis the public debt has doubled in 4 years: from pre-crisis level of 29.2% to 61.5% of GDP.[159]

Labor force is 2.96 million, of whom 58.6% per cent are employed in services sector, 21.9% are employed in the agriculture and 19.5% are employed in industry.[160] The average monthly net salary in August 2013 was 44,770 dinars (US$ 528). The unemployment remains an acute problem, with rate of 24.1% as of April 2013.[161]
100 dinar banknote

Since 2000, Serbia has attracted over $25 billion US$ in foreign direct investment (FDI).[162] Blue-chip corporations making investments in Serbia include: FIAT, Siemens, Bosch, Philip Morris, Michelin, Coca-Cola, Carlsberg and others.[163] In the energy sector, Russian energy giants, Gazprom and Lukoil have made large investments.[164]

Serbia has an unfavorable trade balance: imports exceed exports by a third. Serbia's exports, however, recorded a steady growth in 2012 and 2013.[165] The country has free trade agreements with the EFTA and CEFTA, a preferential trade regime with the European Union, a Generalized System of Preferences with the United States, and individual free trade agreements with Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Turkey.[166]
Agriculture
Main article: Agriculture in Serbia
Plum, fruit-symbol of the country; Serbia is world's second largest producer of plums

Serbia has very favourable natural conditions (land and climate) for varied agricultural production. It has 5,056,000 ha of agricultural land (0.7 ha per capita), out of which 3,294,000 ha is arable land (0.45 ha per capita).[167] In 2012, Serbia exported agricultural and food products worth $2.5 billion, and the export-import ratio was about 190%.[168] Agricultural exports constitute one-fifth of all Serbia’s sales on the world market. Serbia is one of the largest provider of frozen fruit to the EU (largest to the French market, and 2nd largest to the German market).[169] Agricultural production is most prominent in Vojvodina on the fertile Pannonian Plain. Other agricultural regions include Mačva, Pomoravlje, Tamnava, Rasina, and Jablanica.[170]

In the structure of the agricultural production 70% is from the crop field production, and 30% is from the livestock production.[170] Serbia is world's second largest producer of plums (582,485 tons; second to China), third largest of raspberries (89,602 tons, third to Russia and Poland), it is also significant producer of maize (6.48 million tons, ranked 32nd in the world) and wheat (2.07 million tpns, ranked 35th in the world).[96][171] Other important agricultural products are: sunflower, sugar beet, soya bean, potato, apple, pork meat, beef, poultry meat and dairy.

There are 56,000 ha of vineyards in Serbia, producing about 230 million litres of wine annually.[96][167] Most famous viticulture regions are: Vršac area, Župa, Fruška Gora, Topola area.
Industry
See also: Automotive industry in Serbia
The Fiat 500L is manufactured by the Italian carmaker FIAT in Kragujevac

The industry is the economy sector which was hardest hit by the UN sanctions and trade embargo and NATO bombing during the 1990s and transition to market economy during the 2000s.[172] The industrial output saw dramatic downsizing: in 2013 it is expected to be only a half of that of 1989.[173] Main industrial sectors include: automotive, mining, non-ferrous metals, food-processing, electronics, pharmaceuticals, clothes.

Automotive industry (with FIAT as a forebearer) is dominated by cluster located in Kragujevac and its vicinity, and contributes to country's exports with about $2 billion.[174] Serbia's mining industry is comparatively strong: country is world's 18th largest producer of coal (7th in the Europe) extracted from large deposits in Kolubara and Kostolac basins; it is also world's 23rd largest (3rd in Europe) producer of copper which is extracted by RTB Bor, a large domestic copper mining company; significant gold extraction is developed around Majdanpek. Food industry is well known both regionally and internationally and is one of the strong points of the economy.[175] Some of the international brand-names established production in Serbia: PepsiCo and Nestle in food-processing sector; Coca-Cola (Belgrade), Heineken (Novi Sad) and Carlsberg (Bačka Palanka) in beverage industry; Nordzucker in sugar industry.[169] Clothing and textile industry has seen a surge in recent years with significant greenfeild investments by foreign companies: Benneton in Niš, Geox in Vranje, Calzedonia in Sombor, Falke in Leskovac and others. Serbia's electronics industry had its peak in the 1980s and the industry today is only a third of what it was back then, but has witnessed a something of revival in last decade with investments of companies such as Siemens (wind turbines) in Subotica, Panasonic (lighting devices) in Svilajnac, and Gorenje (electrical home appliances) in Valjevo.[176] The pharmaceutical industry in Serbia comprises 20 manufacturers of generic drugs, of which German Stada in Vršac and domestic Galenika based in Belgrade, account for 80% of production volume. Domestic production meets over 60% of the local demand.[177]
Energy
Main article: Energy in Serbia

Energy sector is one of the largest and most important sectors to the country's economy. Serbia is net exporter of electricity and importer of key fuels (such as oil and gas).

Serbia has abundance of one natural fuel (coal) and relatively significant but not sufficient of the others (oil and gas). Serbia's proven reserves of 5.5 billion tons of coal lignite are 4th largest in the world (second in Europe, after Germany).[178][179] Coal is found in two large deposits: Kolubara (4 billion tons of reserves) and Kostolac (1.5 billion tons).[178] Despite being small on a world scale, Serbia's oil and gas resources (77.4 million tons of oil equivalent and 48.1 billion cubic meters, respectively) have a certain regional importance since they are largest in the region of former Yugoslavia as well as the Balkans (excluding Romania).[180] Almost 90% of the discovered oil and gas are to be found in Banat and those oil and gas fields are by size among the largest in the Pannonian basin but the average on a European scale.[181]
NIS headquarters in Novi Sad

The production of electricity in 2012 in Serbia was 36.06 billion kilowatt-hours (KWh), while the final electricity consumption amounted to 35.5 billion kilowatt-hours (KWh).[182] Most of the electricity produced comes from thermal-power plants (72.7% of all electricity) and to a lesser degree from hydroelectric-power plants (27.3%).[183] There are 6 lignite-operated thermal-power plants with an installed power of 3,936 MW; largest of which are 1,502 MW-Nikola Tesla 1 and 1,160 MW-Nikola Tesla 2, both in Obrenovac.[184] Total installed power of 9 hydroelectric-power plants is 2,831 MW, largest of which is Đerdap 1 with capacity of 1,026 MW.[185] In addition to this, there are mazute and gas-operated thermal-power plants with an installed power of 353 MW.[186] The entire production of electricity is concentrated in Elektroprivreda Srbije (EPS), public electric-utility power company.

The current oil production in Serbia amounts to over 1.1 million tons of oil equivalent[187] and satisfies some 43% of country's needs while the rest is imported.[188] National petrol company, Naftna Industrija Srbije (NIS), was acquired in 2008 by Gazprom Neft. The company has completed $700 million modernisation of oil-refinery in Pančevo (capacity of 4.8 million tons) and is currently in the midst of converting oil refinery in Novi Sad into lubricants-only refinery. It also operates network of 334 filling stations in Serbia (74% of domestic market) and additional 36 stations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 31 in Bulgaria, and 28 in Romania.[189][190] There are 155 kilometers of crude oil pipelines connecting Pančevo and Novi Sad refineries as a part of trans-national Adria oil pipeline.[191]

Serbia is heavily dependent on foreign sources of natural gas, with only 17% coming from domestic production (totalling 491 million cubic meters in 2012) and the rest is imported, mainly from Russia (via gas pipelines that run through Ukraine and Hungary).[188] Srbijagas, public gas company, operates the natural gas transportation system which comprise 3,177 kilometers of trunk and regional natural gas pipelines and a 450 million cubic meter underground gas storage facility at Banatski Dvor.[192] Major European transit gas pipeline, South Stream pipeline, will pass through Serbia in length of 422 kilometers and will have capacity of 40.5 billion cubic meters.[193] Start of the construction of Serbian portion of the pipeline is scheduled for the end of 2013 and will be financed with $2.6 billion by the Russian energy giant Gazprom.[194]
Transport
Main article: Transport in Serbia
Air Serbia's Airbus A319

Serbia has a strategic transportation location since country's backbone, Morava valley, represents by far the easiest route of land travel from continental Europe to Asia Minor and the Near East.
State Road 3 motorway near Dobanovci, west of Belgrade

Serbian road network carries the bulk of traffic in the country. Total length of roads is 40,845 km, of which 1,372 km are "class 1a-state roads" (i.e. major national roads, including some 634 km of motorways); 4,153 km are "class 1b-state roads"; 11,540 km are "class 2-state roads" (regional roads) and 23,780 km are "municipal roads" (local roads).[195][196] The road network, except for the most of class 1a roads, are of comparatively lower quality to the Western European standards because of lack of financial resources for their maintenance in the last 20 years. There are currently 241 kilometers of motorways (autoputevi) under construction which are all due to be completed by 2016: 66 km-long section of the State Road 1 (from south of Leskovac to Bujanovac), 102 km-long segment of State Road 2 (between Obrenovac and Čačak), and 83 kilometers on the State Road 5 (east of Niš to the Bulgarian border).[197][198] Work on the construction of the motorways on State Road 4 (110 km section between intersection with SR1 northeast of Kruševac and Požega on the west) as well as the remaining part of State Road 2 (52 km-long sections Belgrade-Obrenovac and Čačak-Požega) is set to commence in 2014 and be completed by 2016 and 2017, respectively.[199] Coach transport is very extensive: almost every place in the country is connected by bus, from largest cities to the villages; in addition there are international routes (mainly to countries of Western Europe with large Serb diaspora). Routes, both domestic and international, are served by more than 100 bus companies, biggest of which are Lasta and Niš-Ekspres. As of 2011, there are 1,677,510 registered passenger cars or 1 passenger car per 4.3 inhabitants.[96]

Serbia has 3,819 kilometers of rail tracks, of which 1,279 are electrified and 283 kilometers are double-track railroad.[96] The major rail hub is Belgrade (and to a lesser degree Niš), while the most imprtant railroads include: Belgrade-Bar (Montenegro), Belgrade-Šid-Zagreb (Croatia)/Belgrade-Niš-Sofia (Bulgaria) (part of Pan-European Corridor X), Belgrade-Subotica-Budapest (Hungary) and Niš-Thessaloniki (Greece). Although still a major mode of freight transportation, railroads face increasing problems with the maintenance of the infrastructure and lowering speeds. All rail services are operated by public rail company, Serbian Railways.[200]

There are only two cities in Serbia (excluding Kosovo) served by international airports with regular passenger traffic: Belgrade and Niš. Belgrade Nikola Tesla Airport served 3.36 million passengers in 2012, and is a hub of flagship carrier Air Serbia.[201]
205 meters-high Avala telecommunication tower

Serbia has a developed inland water transport since there are 1,716 kilometers of navigable inland waterways (1,043 km of navigable rivers and 673 km of navigable canals), which are almost all located in northern third of the country.[96] The most important inland waterway is the Danube (part of Pan-European Corridor VII). Other navigable rivers include Sava, Tisza, Begej and Timiş River, all of which connect Serbia with Northern and Western Europe through the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal and North Sea route, to Eastern Europe via the Tisza, Begej and Danube Black Sea routes, and to Southern Europe via the Sava river. More than 2.1 million tons of cargo were transported on Serbian rivers and canals in 2011 while the largest river ports are: Belgrade, Novi Sad, Pančevo, Smederevo, Prahovo and Šabac.[96][202]
Telecommunications
Main article: Telecommunications in Serbia

Fixed telephone lines have 89% of households in Serbia, and with about 9.8 million users the number of cellphones surpasses the number of total population of Serbia itself by 35%. The largest cellphone provider is Telekom Srbija with 5.65 million subscribers, followed by Telenor with 3.1 million users and Vip mobile with just over 1 million.[203] Computers have 59.9% of households and 55.8% have internet connection (43.4% have a broadband connection).[204] Some 58% of households have cable TV, which is one of the highest rates in Europe.[205] Digital television transition is set to be completed by the end of 2014.[206]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Serbia

Serbia is not a mass-tourism destination but nevertheless has diverse range of touristic products.[207] In 2012, total of 2,079,643 tourists were recorded in accommodations, of which 809,967 were foreign, while the average length of a tourist stay was 3.6 days (2.3 days for foreign tourists).[208][209] Foreign exchange earnings for the same year were estimated at around $1 billion.[210] Tourism is mainly focused on the mountains and spas of the country, which are mostly visited by domestic tourists, as well as Belgrade which is preferred choice of foreign tourists.[211] The most famous mountain resorts are Kopaonik, Stara Planina, and Zlatibor. There are also many spas in Serbia, the biggest of which is Vrnjačka Banja, Soko Banja, and Banja Koviljača. City-break and conference tourism is developed in Belgrade (which was visited by 460,424 foreign tourists in 2012, more than a half of all international visits to the country) and to a lesser degree Novi Sad. Other touristic products that Serbia offer are natural wonders like Đavolja varoš,[212] Christian pilgrimage to the many Orthodox monasteries across the country[213] and the river cruising along the Danube. There are several internationally popular music festivals held in Serbia, such as EXIT (with 25–30,000 foreign visitors coming from 60 different countries) and the Guča trumpet festival.[214]

Kopaonik winter resort

Vrnjačka Banja spa resort

Đavolja Varoš natural wonder

Zlatibor

Golubac Fortress

EXIT festival

Education and science
Main article: Education in Serbia
The University of Belgrade Library

According to 2011 census, literacy in Serbia stands at 98% of population while computer literacy is at 49% (complete computer literacy is at 34.2%).[215] Same census showed the following levels of education: 16.2% of inhabitants have higher education (10.6% have bachelors or masters degrees, 5.6% have an associates degree), 49% have a secondary education, 20.7% have an elementary education, and 13.7% have not completed elementary education.[216]

Education in Serbia is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Science. Education starts in either preschools or elementary schools. Children enroll in elementary schools at the age of seven. Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school. Students have the opportunity to attend gymnasiums and vocational schools for another four years, or to enroll in vocational training for 2 to 3 years. Following the completion of gymnasiums or vocational schools, students have the opportunity to attend university.[217] Elementary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Serbia, where classes are held in Hungarian, Slovak, Albanian, Romanian, Rusyn, Bulgarian as well as Bosnian and Croatian languages.
Dositej Obradović, the founder of the University of Belgrade and Serbia's first Minister of Education[218]

There are 17 universities in Serbia (eight public universities with a total number of 85 faculties and nine private universities with 51 faculties).[219] In 2010/2011 academic year, 181,362 students attended 17 universities (148,248 at public universities and some 33,114 at private universities) while 47,169 attended 81 "higher schools".[96] Public universities in Serbia are: the University of Belgrade (oldest, founded in 1808, and largest university with 89,827 undergraduates and graduates[220]), University of Novi Sad (founded in 1960 and with student body of 47,826[221]), University of Niš (founded in 1965; 27,000 students), University of Kragujevac (founded in 1976; 14,000 students), University of Pristina – Kos. Mitrovica, Public University of Novi Pazar as well as two specialist universities – University of Arts and University of Defence. Largest private universities include Megatrend University and Singidunum University, both in Belgrade, and Educons University in Novi Sad. Public universities tend to be of a better quality and therefore more renowned than private ones. Thе University of Belgrade (placed in 301–400 bracket on 2013 Shanghai Ranking of World Universities, being best-placed university in Southeast Europe after those in Athens and Thessaloniki) and University of Novi Sad are generally considered as the best institutions of higher learning in the country.[222]
Nikola Tesla sits in front of the spiral coil of his high-frequency transformer

Serbia spent 0.64% of GDP on scientific research in 2012, which is one of the lowest R&D budgets in Europe.[223] Serbia has a long history of excellence in maths and computer sciences which has created a strong pool of engineering talent, although economic sanctions during the 1990s and chronic underinvestment in research forced many scientific professionals to leave the country.[224] Nevertheless, there are several areas in which Serbia still excels such as growing information technology sector, which includes software development as well as outsourcing. It generated $200 million in exports in 2011, both from international investors and a significant number of dynamic homegrown enterprises.[225] In 2005 the global technology giant, Microsoft, founded the Microsoft Development Center, only its fourth such centre in the world. Among the scientific institutes operating in Serbia, the largest are the Mihajlo Pupin Institute and Vinča Nuclear Institute, both in Belgrade. The Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts is a learned society promoting science and arts from its inception in 1841.[226] Country has a rich tradition of contributing to the field of science and technology with many renowned scientists.

Nikola Tesla, electrical engineer and inventor, best known for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC) electricity supply system including the AC induction motor.[227] The tesla is the SI derived unit of magnetic flux density and was named after Tesla.[228]
Mihajlo Pupin discovered a means of greatly extending the range of long-distance telephone communication by placing loading coils of wire (known as Pupin coils) at predetermined intervals along the transmitting wire (known as "pupinization").[229]
Milutin Milanković is known for his theory of ice ages, suggesting a relationship between the Earth's long-term climate changes and periodic changes in its orbit, now known as Milankovitch cycles.
Mihailo Petrović is known for having contributed significantly to differential equations and phenomenology, as well as inventing one of the first prototypes of an analog computer.
Miodrag Radulovacki is best known for postulating the Adenosine Sleep Theory in 1984.[230]

Culture
Main articles: Serbian culture and Cultural Heritage of Serbia
White Angel fresco, 1230
Marble Studenica monastery built in 1196, UNESCO

For centuries straddling the boundaries between East and West, Serbia had been divided among the Eastern and Western halves of the Roman Empire; then between the Kingdom of Hungary, Frankish Kingdom and Byzantium; and then between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg Empire, as well as Venice in the south. These overlapping influences have resulted in cultural varieties throughout Serbia; its north leans to the profile of Central Europe, while the south is characteristic of the wider Balkans and even the Mediterranean. The Byzantine influence on Serbia was profound, firstly through the introduction of Eastern Christianity (Orthodoxy) in the Early Middle Ages. The Serbian Orthodox Church has had an enduring status in Serbia, with the many Serbian monasteries constituting the most valuable cultural monuments left from Serbia in the Middle Ages.

Serbia has four cultural monuments inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage: the early medieval capital Stari Ras and the 13th-century monastery Sopoćani; the 12th-century Studenica monastery; the Roman complex of Gamzigrad–Felix Romuliana; and finally the endangered Medieval Monuments in Kosovo (comprising the monasteries of Visoki Dečani, Our Lady of Ljeviš, Gračanica and Patriarchate of Peć). There are two literary monuments on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme: the 12th-century Miroslav Gospel, and scientist Nikola Tesla's valuable archive.

The Ministry of Culture and Information is tasked with preserving the nation's cultural heritage and overseeing its development. Further activities supporting development of culture are undertaken at local government level.
Art
Main article: Serbian art
The National Museum (top) and Museum of Contemporary Art (bottom), house national collections of classical and contemporary art
Kosovo Maiden (1919) by Uroš Predić, based on Serbian epic poetry, which was praised by many famous persons such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Jacob Grimm, Hans Christian Andersen and Carl Spitteler.[231]

Traces of Roman and early Byzantine Empire architectural heritage are found in many royal cities and palaces in Serbia, like Sirmium, Gamzigrad-Felix Romuliana and Justiniana Prima.

Serbian monasteries, with their fresco and icon paintings, are pinnacle of Serbian medieval art. At the beginning, they were under the influence of Byzantine Art which was particularly felt after the fall of Constantinople in 1204, when many Byzantine artists fled to Serbia. The most noted of these monasteries is Studenica (built around 1190). It was a model for later monasteries, like the Mileševa, Sopoćani, Žiča, Gračanica and Visoki Dečani. The most famous Serbian medieval fresco is the Mironosnice na Grobu (or the "White Angel") from the Mileševa monastery.[232] In the end of 14th and the 15th centuries, autochotonous architectural style known as Morava style evolved in area around Morava Valley. A characteristic of this style was the wealthy decoration of the frontal church walls. Examples of this include Manasija, Ravanica and Kalenić monasteries. Country is dotted with many well-preserved medieval fortifications and castles such as Smederevo Fortress (largest lowland fortress in Europe), Golubac, Maglič, and Ram.

During the time of Turkish occupation, Serbian art was virtually non-existent, with the exception of several Serbian artists who lived in the lands ruled by the Habsburg Monarchy. Traditional Serbian art showed some Baroque influences at the end of the 18th century as shown in the works of Nikola Nešković, Teodor Kračun, Zaharije Orfelin and Jakov Orfelin.[233]

Serbian painting showed the influence of Biedermeier, Neoclassicism and Romanticism during the 19th century. The most important Serbian painters of the first half of 20th century were Paja Jovanović and Uroš Predić of Realism, Cubist Sava Šumanović, Milena Pavlović-Barili and Nadežda Petrović of Impressionism, Expressionist Milan Konjović. Noted painters of the second half of 20th century include Marko Čelebonović, Petar Lubarda, Milo Milunović, and Vladimir Veličković.[234]

There are around 100 art museums in Serbia, of which the most prominent is the National Museum, founded in 1844; it houses one of the largest art collections in the Balkans with more than 400,000 exhibits, over 5,600 paintings and 8,400 drawings and prints, including many foreign masterpiece collections. Other art museums of note are Museum of Contemporary Art in Belgrade and Museum of Vojvodina in Novi Sad.
Literature
Main article: Serbian literature
Miroslav Gospels, one of the oldest surviving documents written in Serbian Church Slavonic, 1186

The beginning of Serbian literacy dates back to the activity of the brothers Cyril and Methodius in the Balkans. Monuments of Serbian literacy from the early 11th century can be found, written in Glagolitic. Starting in the 12th century, books were written in Cyrillic. From this epoch, the oldest Serbian Cyrillic book editorial are the Miroslav Gospels. The Miroslav Gospels are considered to be the oldest book of Serbian medieval history.

Notable medieval authors include Saint Sava, Nun Jefimija, Stefan Lazarević, Constantine of Kostenets and others.[235] Baroque trends in Serbian literature emerged in the late 17th century. Notable Baroque-influenced authors were Gavril Stefanović Venclović, Jovan Rajić, Zaharije Orfelin, Andrija Zmajević and others.[236] Dositej Obradović was the most prominent figure of the Age of Enlightenment, while the most notable Classicist writer was Jovan Sterija Popović, although his works also contained elements of Romanticism.[237] In the era of national revival, in the first half of the 19th century, Vuk Stefanović Karadžić collected Serbian folk literature, and reformed the Serbian language and spelling.[238] The first half of the 19th century was dominated by Romanticism, with Đura Jakšić, Jovan Jovanović Zmaj, Laza Kostić, and Branko Radičević being the most notable representatives, while the second half of the century was marked by Realist writers such as Milovan Glišić, Laza Lazarević, Simo Matavulj, Stevan Sremac, Branislav Nušić, Radoje Domanović and Borisav Stanković. The 20th century was dominated by the prose writers Ivo Andrić (the 1961 winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature), Miloš Crnjanski, Meša Selimović, Borislav Pekić, Danilo Kiš, Dobrica Ćosić, Isidora Sekulić, Branko Ćopić and Aleksandar Tišma.[239][240] There were also many valuable poetic achievements, as seen by the writings of Milan Rakić, Jovan Dučić, Desanka Maksimović, Vladislav Petković Dis, Branko Miljković, Vasko Popa, Oskar Davičo, and others.[241] In the last decade of the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st century, the most popular Serbian writers include Milorad Pavić, David Albahari, Goran Petrović, Svetlana Velmar-Janković, Svetislav Basara and Zoran Živković.

There are 551 public libraries in Serbia (excluding Kosovo), biggest of which are two national libraries: National Library of Serbia in Belgrade with funds of about 5 million volumes, and Matica Srpska (oldest Serbian cultural institution, founded in 1826) in Novi Sad with nearly 3.5 million volumes.[242][243] In 2010, there were 10,989 books and brochures published.[96] The book publishing market is dominated by several major publishers such as Laguna and Vulkan (both of which operate their own bookstore chains) and the industry's centerpiece event, annual Belgrade Book Fair, is the most visited cultural event in Serbia with 158,128 visitors in 2013.[244] Highlight of the literary scene is awarding of NIN Prize, most prestigious literary award given every January since 1954 for the best newly published novel in Serbian language (during times of Yugoslavia, in Serbo-Croatian language).[245]
Music
Main article: Music of Serbia

Composer and musicologist Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac is considered founder of modern Serbian music.[246][247] The Serbian composers of the first generation Petar Konjović, Stevan Hristić, and Miloje Milojević maintained the national expression and modernized the romanticism into the direction of impressionism. Other famous classical Serbian composers include Isidor Bajić, Stanislav Binički and Josif Marinković.[248] There are three opera houses in Serbia: Opera of the National Theatre and Madlenianum Opera, both in Belgrade, and Opera of the Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad. Four symphonic orchestra operate in the country: Belgrade Philharmonic Orchestra, Niš Symphony Orchestra, Symphonic Orchestra of Radio Television of Serbia, and Novi Sad Philharmonic Orchestra. The Choir of Radio Television of Serbia is a leading vocal ensemble in the country.[249] The BEMUS is one of the most prominent classical music festivals in the South East Europe.
Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac

Traditional Serbian music includes various kinds of bagpipes, flutes, horns, trumpets, lutes, psalteries, drums and cymbals. The kolo is the traditional collective folk dance, which has a number of varieties throughout the regions. The most popular are those from Užice and Morava region. Sung epic poetry has been an integral part of Serbian and Balkan music for centuries. In the highlands of Serbia these long poems are typically accompanied on a one-string fiddle called the gusle, and concern themselves with themes from history and mythology. There are records of gusle being played at the court of the 13th-century King Stefan Nemanjić.[250]

The Serbian rock which was during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s part of former Yugoslav rock scene, used to be well developed, featuring various rock genres, and was well covered in the media, which included numerous magazines, radio and TV shows. During the 1990s and 2000s popularity of rock music declined in Serbia, and although several major mainstream acts managed to sustain their popularity, an underground and independent music scene developed. The most notable Serbian rock acts include Ekatarina Velika, Riblja Čorba, Bajaga i Instruktori, Disciplina Kičme, Električni Orgazam, Partibrejkers, Smak, Van Gogh, and others.

Pop music has mainstream popularity. Željko Joksimović won second place at the 2004 Eurovision Song Contest and Marija Šerifović managed to win the 2007 Eurovision Song Contest with the song "Molitva", and Serbia was the host of the 2008 edition of the Contest. Most popular pop singers include likes of Zdravko Čolić, Đorđe Balašević, Vlado Georgiev, Nataša Bekvalac among others.
Serbia won the Eurovision Song Contest 2007.

Turbo-folk music is sub-genre that has developed in Serbia in late 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s and has since enjoyed an immense popularity. It is a blend of folk music with pop and/or dance elements and can be seen as a result of the urbanization of folk music. In recent period turbo-folk featured even more pop music elements, and some of the performers were labeled as pop-folk. The most popular turbo-folk singers include Ceca, Aca Lukas, Jelena Karleuša and Seka Aleksić.

Balkan Brass, or truba ("trumpet") is a popular genre, especially in Central and Southern Serbia where Balkan Brass originated. The music has its tradition from the First Serbian Uprising. The trumpet was used as a military instrument to wake and gather soldiers and announce battles, the trumpet took on the role of entertainment during downtime, as soldiers used it to transpose popular folk songs. When the war ended and the soldiers returned to the rural life, the music entered civilian life and eventually became a music style, accompanying births, baptisms, weddings, and funerals. There are two main varietes of this genre, one from Western Serbia and the other from Southern Serbia. The best known Serbian Brass musician is Boban Marković, also one of the biggest names in the world of modern brass band bandleaders.

Most popular music festival are Guča Trumpet Festival with over 300,000 annual visitors and EXIT in Novi Sad ("The best European festival" in 2007 by UK Festival Awards and Yourope – the European Association of the 40 largest festivals in Europe) with 200,000 visitors in 2013.[251][252] Other festivals include Nišville Jazz Festival in Niš and Gitarijada rock festival in Zaječar.
Theatre and cinema
Main article: Cinema of Serbia
The Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad
Serbian film director Emir Kusturica who twice won the Palme d'Or at Cannes Film Festival

Serbia has a well-established theatrical tradition with Joakim Vujić considered the founder of modern Serbian theater.[253] Serbia has 38 professional theatres, the most important of which are National Theatre in Belgrade, Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad, National Theatre in Subotica, National Theatre in Niš and Knjaževsko-srpski teatar in Kragujevac (the oldest theatre in Serbia, established in 1835). The Belgrade International Theatre Festival – BITEF, founded in 1967, is one of the oldest theater festivals in the world, and it has become one of the five biggest European festivals.[254] Sterijino pozorje is, on the other hand, festival showcasing national drama plays. The most important Serbian playwrighters were Jovan Sterija Popović and Branislav Nušić, while today renowned names are Dušan Kovačević and Biljana Srbljanović.[255]

The Serbian cinema is one of the most dynamic smaller European cinematographies. Serbia's film industry is heavily subsidised by the government, mainly through grants approved by the Film Centre of Serbia. In 2011, there were 17 domestic feature films produced.[256] There are 20 operating cinemas in the country, of which 10 are multiplexes, with total attendance exceeding 2.6 million and comparatively high percentage of 32.3% of total sold tickets for domestic films.[257][258] Modern PFI Studios located in Šimanovci is nowadays Serbia's only film studio complex; it consists of 9 state-of-the-art sound stages and attracts mainly international productions, primarily American and West European.[259] The Yugoslav Film Archive used to be former Yugoslavia's and now is Serbia national film archive – with over 95 thousand film prints, it is among five largest film archives in the world.[260]

Serbian cinema dates back to 1896 with the release of the oldest movie in the Balkans, The Life and Deeds of the Immortal Vožd Karađorđe, a biography about Serbian revolutionary leader, Karađorđe.[261][262] The most famous Serbian filmmaker is Emir Kusturica who won two Golden Palms for Best Feature Film at the Cannes Film Festival, for When Father Was Away on Business in 1985 and then again for Underground in 1995.[263] Other renowned directors include Goran Paskaljević, Dušan Makavejev, Goran Marković, Srđan Dragojević and Srdan Golubović among others.

Steve Tesich, Serbian-American screenwriter, won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay in 1979 for the movie Breaking Away.
Media
Main articles: Television in Serbia and List of newspapers in Serbia
Front page of Politika, Serbian newspaper of record and the oldest daily in the Balkans, founded in 1904

The freedom of the press and the freedom of speech are guaranteed by the constitution of Serbia.[264] Serbia is ranked 63rd out of 179 countries in the 2013 Press Freedom Index report compiled by Reporters Without Borders while in 2013 report by Freedom House country has been classified as "partly free" and ranked 74th out of 196 countries.[265][266] Both reports noted that media outlets and journalists continue to face partisan and government pressure over editorial policies. Also, the media are now more heavily dependent on advertising contracts and government subsidies to survive financially.[267]

According to AGB Nielsen Research in 2009, Serbs on average watch five hours of television per day, making it the highest average in Europe.[268] There are six nationwide free-to-air television channels, with public broadcaster Radio Television of Serbia (RTS) operating two (RTS1 and RTS2) and remaining five are private broadcasters: Prva, B92, Pink and Happy TV. Viewing shares for these channels in 2012 were as follows: 23.5% for RTS1, 19.6% for Pink, 16.1% for Prva, 8.1% for B92, 3.6% for RTS2, and 2.8% for Happy TV.[269] There are 28 regional television stations and 74 local television stations.[96] Besides terrestrial channels there are a dozen Serbian television channels available only on cable or satellite.

There are 220 radio stations in Serbia.[96] Out of these, nine are radio stations with national coverage, including three of public broadcaster Radio Television of Serbia (Radio Belgrade 1, Radio Belgrade 2/Radio Belgrade 3 and Radio Belgrade 202), and five private ones (Radio S, Radio B92, Radio Indeks, Radio Fokus, and Radio Hit FM). Also, there are 49 regional stations and 162 local stations.[270]

There are 340 newspapers published in Serbia.[96] Some 14 daily newspapers are published in the country out of which 10 are nationwide dailies. Dailies Politika and Danas are Serbia's papers of record, former being the oldest newspaper in the Balkans, founded in 1904.[271] Highest circulation newspapers are tabloids Večernje Novosti, Blic, Kurir, and Alo!, all with more than 100,000 copies sold.[272] There are two sport newspapers (Sportski žurnal and Sport), one business daily Privredni pregled, two regional newspapers (Dnevnik published in Novi Sad and Narodne novine from Niš), one daily on Hungarian language (Magyar Szo published in Subotica), and a free newspaper of 24 sata, distributed only in Belgrade and Novi Sad.

There are 1,262 magazines published in the country.[96] Those include weekly news magazines NIN and Vreme, popular science magazine of Politikin Zabavnik, women's Lepota & Zdravlje, auto magazine SAT revija, IT magazine Svet kompjutera. In addition, there is a wide selection of Serbian editions of international magazines, such as Cosmopolitan, Elle, Grazia, Men's Health, National Geographic, Le Monde diplomatique, Playboy, Hello! and others.

As of 2013, the most visited websites in Serbian (mainly on the .rs domain) are the Serbian version of Google followed by online editions of printed daily Blic and news web-portal of B92 broadcaster.[273]
Cuisine
Main article: Serbian cuisine

Serbian cuisine is a heterogeneous cuisine, sharing characteristics of the Balkans (especially former Yugoslavia), the Mediterranean (Greek in particular), Turkish, and Central European (especially Austrian and Hungarian) cuisines. Each region has its own peculiarities and variations. Among traditional Serbian foods are ćevapčići, pljeskavica, sarma, pasulj, burek, gibanica, ajvar. The national drink is Slivovitz (šljivovica).[274]

Ćevapčići

Đuveč

Sarma

Gibanica

Slatko

Sports
Main article: Sport in Serbia

Sports play an important role in Serbian society, and the country has a strong sporting history. The most popular sports in Serbia are football, basketball, tennis, volleyball, and water polo.

Professional sports in Serbia are organized by sporting federations and leagues (in case of team sports). One of particularities of Serbian professional sports is existence of many multi-sports clubs (called "sports societies"), biggest and most successful of which are Red Star, Partizan, and Beograd in Belgrade, Vojvodina in Novi Sad, Radnički in Kragujevac, Spartak in Subotica.
Novak Đoković, tennis player, six-time Grand Slam champion
Nemanja Vidić, football player, two-time Premier League Player of the Season
Predrag "Peja" Stojaković, basketball player, three-time NBA All-Star

Football is the most popular sport in Serbia, and the Football Association of Serbia with 146,845 registered players, is the largest sporting association in the country.[275] Over the years country gave many internationally renowned players such as Dragan Džajić (officially recognized as "the best Serbian player of all times" by Football Association of Serbia; 1968 European Footballer of the Year third place) and more recent likes of Nemanja Vidić (Premier League Player of the Season and member of FIFPro World XI, both awards for 2008–09 and 2010–11 seasons respectively), Dejan Stanković (Serbia's most capped player with 103 appearances for national team), and Branislav Ivanović. Serbia has developed a reputation as one of the world's biggest exporters of expat footballers.[276] The Serbia national football team lacks relative success although it had qualified for three of the last five FIFA World Cups, with last appearance in 2010 FIFA World Cup. The two main football clubs in Serbia are Red Star and Partizan, both from Belgrade. Red Star is one of only two non-Western European clubs (other being Romania's Steaua Bucarest) that has won an elite UEFA competition, winning the 1991 European Cup. The same year, the club won the Intercontinental Cup. Partizan was the first non-Western European club which played in a European Cup final, in 1966. The rivalry between the two clubs is known as the "Eternal Derby", and is often cited as one of the most exciting sports rivalries in the world.[277][278] The Serbian SuperLiga attracts the highest average attendance of any professional sports league in the country with 823,122 spectators or 3,430 per game for 2012–13 season.[279] The current champion is Partizan, for the fifth consecutive year and 25th in total, thus tying with Red Star for number of championship titles.
The Serbian national football team with tifo in the Serbian tricolor being displayed at the Belgrade's Marakana stadium

Country is one of the traditional powerhouses of world basketball, as Serbia men's national basketball team have won two World Championships (in 1998 and 2002), three European Championships (1995, 1997, and 2001, respectively) and silver medal at 1996 Olympics as well. Total of 22 Serbian players played in the NBA in last two decades, including Predrag "Peja" Stojaković (three-time NBA All-Star), Vlade Divac (2001 NBA All-Star and FIBA Hall of Famer), Predrag Danilović, Vladimir Radmanović, Nenad Krstić, Marko Jarić, and Željko Rebrača. Serbian players that have not played in the NBA but nevertheless made a great impact on the game in Europe include four members of FIBA Hall of Fame from the 1960s and 1970s – Dragan Kićanović, Dražen Dalipagić, Radivoj Korać, and Zoran Slavnić – as well as recent stars of European basketball such as Dejan Bodiroga (2002 All-Europe Player of the Year) and currently active Miloš Teodosić (2009–2010 Euroleague MVP). Famous "Serbian coaching school" produced many renowned European basketball coaches, such as Željko Obradović (won record eight Euroleague titles with four different clubs), Božidar Maljković (four Euroleague titles with three different clubs), Dušan Ivković (two Euroleague titles), and Svetislav Pešić. The Basketball League of Serbia is the highest professional basketball league in Serbia. For the twelfth consecutive year, Partizan is the reigning champion of the league, followed by rivals Red Star. Partizan was the European champion in 1992.

Recent success of Serbian tennis players has led to an immense popularisation of tennis in Serbia. Novak Đoković, six-time Grand Slam champion and 2011 Laureus Sportsman of the Year, finished in 2011 and 2012 as No. 1 in the world and is currently No. 2 in the ATP Rankings.[280] Ana Ivanovic (champion of 2008 French Open) and Jelena Janković were both ranked No. 1 in the WTA Rankings. There were two No. 1 ranked-tennis double players as well: Nenad Zimonjić (three-time men's double and four-time mixed double Grand Slam champion) and Slobodan Živojinović. The Serbia men's tennis national team won the 2010 Davis Cup while Serbia women's tennis national team reached the final at 2012 Fed Cup.[281]

Serbia is one of the leading volleyball countries in the world. Serbia men's national volleyball team won the gold medal at 2000 Olympics, and twice won European Championship in 2001 and 2011. Serbian volleyball players include likes of Nikola Grbić, Vladimir Grbić, Ivan Miljković, and Goran Vujević. Also, Serbia women's national volleyball team won European Championship in 2011.

The Serbia men's national water polo team is, after Hungary, the most successful national team having won two World Championships (2005 and 2009), and four European Championships in 2001, 2003, 2006, and 2012 respectively.[282] With seven European champion titles, Partizan is the best European club in waterpolo history along with Croatian HAVK Mladost and Italian Pro Recco. Notable Serbian water polo players are Igor Milanović, Vladimir Vujasinović, Aleksandar Šapić, Aleksandar Šoštar and Vanja Udovičić.

Other noted Serbian athletes include: swimmers Milorad Čavić (2009 World champion on 50 meters butterfly and silver medalist on 100 meters butterfly as well as 2008 Olympic silver medalist on 100 meters butterfly in historic race with American swimmer Michael Phelps) and Nađa Higl (2009 World champion in 200 meters breaststroke – the first Serbian woman to become a world champion in swimming); track and field athletes Emir Bekrić (hurdler; bronze medalist at the 2013 World Championships) and Ivana Španović (long-jumper; bronze medalist at the 2013 World Championships); shooter Jasna Šekarić (1988 Olympic gold medalist) and taekwondoist Milica Mandić (2012 Olympic gold medalist).

Serbia hosted several major sport competitions in last decade, including the 2005 Men's European Basketball Championship, 2005 Men's European Volleyball Championship, 2006 Men's European Water Polo Championship, 2009 Summer Universiade, 2012 European Men's Handball Championship, and 2013 World Women's Handball Championship. The most important annual sporting events held in the country are Belgrade Marathon and Tour de Serbie cycling race.
See also
Portal icon Serbia portal

International rankings of Serbia
Outline of Serbia
Book icon Serbia at Wikipedia books

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Jump up ^ http://www.rra.org.rs/pages/browse_permits/cirilica/national
Jump up ^ http://www.politika.rs/Stranice/O-nama.lt.html
Jump up ^ http://www.color.rs/novosti85.html
Jump up ^ http://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries;1/RS
Jump up ^ "Food". serbia.travel. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.fss.rs/index.php?id=3011
Jump up ^ [5] Soccerlens – 27 January 2010 – Serbia's Endless List of Wonderkids
Jump up ^ Matt Fortune (27 November 2009). "THE LIST: The greatest rivalries in club football, Nos 10–1". Dailymail.co.uk. Retrieved 21 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Valter Zenga: Zvezda je najveći klub koji sam vodio
Jump up ^ http://www.transfermarkt.de/en/superliga/besucherzahlen-historie/wettbewerb_SER1.html
Jump up ^ "Current ATP Rankings (singles)". Association of Tennis Professionals.
Jump up ^ "Serbia wins first Davis Cup title". ESPN. 5 December 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "Osvojene medalje". waterpoloserbia.org. Retrieved 20 March 2013.

Sources:

Ćorović, Vladimir (1941). "Iсторија српског народа (Istorija srpskog naroda)". Internet, 2001) (in Serbian). Пројекат Растко: Библиотека српске културе; Proјekat Rastko: Biblioteka srpske kulture.
Ćirković, Sima M. (2004). The Serbs. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20471-7.
Fine, John Van Antwerp (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7.
Fine, John Van Antwerp (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08149-3
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies.
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the CIA World Factbook.

Bibliography

Michael Boro Petrovich, The History of Modern Serbia 1804–1918, 2 vols. I–II, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York 1976.
Dušan T. Bataković (dir), Histoire du peuple serbe, Lausanne, L'Age d'Homme 2005.
Dušan T. Bataković, The Kosovo Chronicles, Plato Books, Belgrade 1992.
The Serbs and Their National Interest, N. Von Ragenfeld-Feldman & D. T. Bataković (eds.), SUC, San Francisco & Belgrade 1997
Kosovo and Metohija. Living in the Enclave, D. T. Bataković (ed.), Institute for Balkan Studies, SASA, Belgrade 2007.
Dušan T. Bataković, Kosovo. Un conflit sans fin ?, Lausanne, L'Age d'Homme 2008.
Dušan T. Bataković, Serbia's Kosovo Drama. A Historical Perspective, Čigoja Štampa, Belgrade 2012.

External links
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